a definition of biography

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[ bahy- og -r uh -fee , bee- ]

the biography of Byron by Marchand.

• an account in biographical form of an organization, society, theater, animal, etc.
• such writings collectively.
• the writing of biography as an occupation or field of endeavor.

/ baɪˈɒɡrəfɪ; ˌbaɪəˈɡræfɪkəl /

• an account of a person's life by another
• such accounts collectively
• The story of someone's life. The Life of Samuel Johnson , by James Boswell , and Abraham Lincoln , by Carl Sandburg , are two noted biographies. The story of the writer's own life is an autobiography .

Derived Forms

• biˈographer , noun
• biographical , adjective
• ˌbioˈgraphically , adverb

Word History and Origins

Origin of biography 1

Example Sentences

Barrett didn’t say anything on Tuesday to contradict our understanding of her ideological leanings based on her past rulings, past statements and biography.

Republicans, meanwhile, focused mostly on her biography — including her role as a working mother of seven and her Catholic faith — and her credentials, while offering few specifics about her record as a law professor and judge.

She delivered an inspiring biography at one point, reflecting on the sacrifice her mother made to emigrate to the United States.

As Walter Isaacson pointed out in his biography of Benjamin Franklin, Franklin proposed the postal system as a vital network to bond together the 13 disparate colonies.

Serving that end, the book is not an in-depth biography as much as a summary of Galileo’s life and science, plus a thorough recounting of the events leading up to his famous trial.

The Amazon biography for an author named Papa Faal mentions both Gambia and lists a military record that matches the FBI report.

For those unfamiliar with Michals, an annotated biography and useful essays are included.

Did you envision your Pryor biography as extending your previous investigation—aesthetically and historically?

But Stephen Kotkin's new biography reveals a learned despot who acted cunningly to take advantage of the times.

Watching novelists insult one another is one of the primary pleasures of his biography.

He also published two volumes of American Biography, a work which his death abridged.

Mme. de Chaulieu gave her husband the three children designated in the duc's biography.

The biography of great men always has been, and always will be read with interest and profit.

I like biography far better than fiction myself: fiction is too free.

The Bookman: "A more entertaining narrative whether in biography or fiction has not appeared in recent years."

Related Words

• autobiography

Definition of Biography

Common examples of biographical subjects, famous examples of biographical works, difference between biography, autobiography, and memoir, examples of biography in literature, example 1:  savage beauty: the life of edna st. vincent millay  (nancy milford).

One of the first things Vincent explained to Norma was that there was a certain freedom of language in the Village that mustn’t shock her. It wasn’t vulgar. ‘So we sat darning socks on Waverly Place and practiced the use of profanity as we stitched. Needle in, . Needle out, piss. Needle in, . Needle out, c. Until we were easy with the words.’

Example 2:  The Invisible Woman: The Story of Nelly Ternan and Charles Dickens  (Claire Tomalin)

The season of domestic goodwill and festivity must have posed a problem to all good Victorian family men with more than one family to take care of, particularly when there were two lots of children to receive the demonstrations of paternal love.

Example 3:  Virginia Woolf  (Hermione Lee)

‘A self that goes on changing is a self that goes on living’: so too with the biography of that self. And just as lives don’t stay still, so life-writing can’t be fixed and finalised. Our ideas are shifting about what can be said, our knowledge of human character is changing. The biographer has to pioneer, going ‘ahead of the rest of us, like the miner’s canary, testing the atmosphere , detecting falsity, unreality, and the presence of obsolete conventions’. So, ‘There are some stories which have to be retold by each generation’. She is talking about the story of Shelley, but she could be talking about her own life-story.

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/baɪˈɑgrəfi/, /baɪˈɒgrəfi/.

Other forms: biographies

A biography is an account of somebody's life written by somebody else, complete with details of the most important parts.

These days, anyone, of any age, can be the subject of a biography: Justin Bieber, at the tender age of 17, had one written about his life. A biography is not to be confused with an autobiography, an account of someone's life written by the subject himself. You'll find biographies in printed form (remember books?), but also increasingly in the form of e-books, TV dramatizations, and cinematic "bio-docs."

• noun an account of the series of events making up a person's life synonyms: life , life history , life story see more see less examples: Parallel Lives a collection of biographies of famous pairs of Greeks and Romans written by Plutarch; used by Shakespeare in writing some of his plays types: show 4 types... hide 4 types... autobiography a biography of yourself hagiography a biography that idealizes or idolizes the person (especially a person who is a saint) profile biographical sketch memoir an account of the author's personal experiences type of: account , chronicle , history , story a record or narrative description of past events

Vocabulary lists containing biography

Are you ready to learn the facts of life? Then review these words from the Greek root bio , meaning "life" or "way of living."

Practice this vocabulary list and explore words that contain the Greek roots graph ("write/writing") and gram ("written thing").

To improve your fluency in English Language Arts and Reading (ELAR), learn this academic vocabulary list that includes words selected from the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) state standards.

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Definition of biography noun from the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

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bi·og·ra·phy

Bi•og•ra•phy.

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What Is a Biography?

Learning from the experiences of others is what makes us human.

At the core of every biography is the story of someone’s humanity. While biographies come in many sub-genres, the one thing they all have in common is loyalty to the facts, as they’re available at the time. Here’s how we define biography, a look at its origins, and some popular types.

“Biography” Definition

A biography is simply the story of a real person’s life. It could be about a person who is still alive, someone who lived centuries ago, someone who is globally famous, an unsung hero forgotten by history, or even a unique group of people. The facts of their life, from birth to death (or the present day of the author), are included with life-changing moments often taking center stage. The author usually points to the subject’s childhood, coming-of-age events, relationships, failures, and successes in order to create a well-rounded description of her subject.

Biographies require a great deal of research. Sources of information could be as direct as an interview with the subject providing their own interpretation of their life’s events. When writing about people who are no longer with us, biographers look for primary sources left behind by the subject and, if possible, interviews with friends or family. Historical biographers may also include accounts from other experts who have studied their subject.

The biographer’s ultimate goal is to recreate the world their subject lived in and describe how they functioned within it. Did they change their world? Did their world change them? Did they transcend the time in which they lived? Why or why not? And how? These universal life lessons are what make biographies such a meaningful read.

Origins of the Biography

Greco-Roman literature honored the gods as well as notable mortals. Whether winning or losing, their behaviors were to be copied or seen as cautionary tales. One of the earliest examples written exclusively about humans is Plutarch’s Parallel Lives (probably early 2 nd century AD). It’s a collection of biographies in which a pair of men, one Greek and one Roman, are compared and held up as either a good or bad example to follow.

In the Middle Ages, Einhard’s The Life of Charlemagne (around 817 AD) stands out as one of the most famous biographies of its day. Einhard clearly fawns over Charlemagne’s accomplishments throughout, yet it doesn’t diminish the value this biography has brought to centuries of historians since its writing.

Considered the earliest modern biography, The Life of Samuel Johnson (1791) by James Boswell looks like the biographies we know today. Boswell conducted interviews, performed years of research, and created a compelling narrative of his subject.

The genre evolves as the 20th century arrives, and with it the first World War. The 1920s saw a boom in autobiographies in response. Robert Graves’ Good-Bye to All That (1929) is a coming-of age story set amid the absurdity of war and its aftermath. That same year, Mahatma Gandhi wrote The Story of My Experiments with Truth , recalling how the events of his life led him to develop his theories of nonviolent rebellion. In this time, celebrity tell-alls also emerged as a popular form of entertainment. With the horrors of World War II and the explosion of the civil rights movement, American biographers of the late 20 th century had much to archive. Instantly hailed as some of the best writing about the war, John Hersey’s Hiroshima (1946) tells the stories of six people who lived through those world-altering days. Alex Haley wrote the as-told-to The Autobiography of Malcom X (1965). Yet with biographies, the more things change, the more they stay the same. One theme that persists is a biographer’s desire to cast its subject in an updated light, as in Eleanor and Hick: The Love Affair that Shaped a First Lady by Susan Quinn (2016).

Types of Biographies

Contemporary Biography: Authorized or Unauthorized

The typical modern biography tells the life of someone still alive, or who has recently passed. Sometimes these are authorized — written with permission or input from the subject or their family — like Dave Itzkoff’s intimate look at the life and career of Robin Williams, Robin . Unauthorized biographies of living people run the risk of being controversial. Kitty Kelley’s infamous His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra so angered Sinatra, he tried to prevent its publication.

Historical Biography

The wild success of Lin-Manuel Miranda’s Hamilton is proof that our interest in historical biography is as strong as ever. Miranda was inspired to write the musical after reading Ron Chernow’s Alexander Hamilton , an epic 800+ page biography intended to cement Hamilton’s status as a great American. Paula Gunn Allen also sets the record straight on another misunderstood historical figure with Pocahontas: Medicine Woman, Spy, Entrepreneur, Diplomat , revealing details about her tribe, her family, and her relationship with John Smith that are usually missing from other accounts. Historical biographies also give the spotlight to people who died without ever getting the recognition they deserved, such as The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks .

Biography of a Group

When a group of people share unique characteristics, they can be the topic of a collective biography. The earliest example of this is Captain Charles Johnson’s A General History of the Pirates (1724), which catalogs the lives of notorious pirates and establishes the popular culture images we still associate with them. Smaller groups are also deserving of a biography, as seen in David Hajdu’s Positively 4th Street , a mesmerizing behind-the-scenes look at the early years of Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Mimi Baez Fariña, and Richard Fariña as they establish the folk scene in New York City. Likewise, British royal family fashion is a vehicle for telling the life stories of four iconic royals – Queen Elizabeth II, Diana, Kate, and Meghan – in HRH: So Many Thoughts on Royal Style by style journalist Elizabeth Holmes.

Autobiography

This type of biography is written about one’s self, spanning an entire life up to the point of its writing. One of the earliest autobiographies is Saint Augustine’s The Confessions (400), in which his own experiences from childhood through his religious conversion are told in order to create a sweeping guide to life. Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is the first of six autobiographies that share all the pain of her childhood and the long road that led to her work in the civil rights movement, and a beloved, prize-winning writer.

Memoirs are a type of autobiography, written about a specific but vital aspect of one’s life. In Toil & Trouble , Augusten Burroughs explains how he has lived his life as a witch. Mikel Jollett’s Hollywood Park recounts his early years spent in a cult, his family’s escape, and his rise to success with his band, The Airborne Toxic Event. Barack Obama’s first presidential memoir, A Promised Land , charts his path into politics and takes a deep dive into his first four years in office.

Fictional Biography

Fictional biographies are no substitute for a painstakingly researched scholarly biography, but they’re definitely meant to be more entertaining. Z: A Novel of Zelda Fitzgerald by Therese Anne Fowler constructs Zelda and F. Scott’s wild, Jazz-Age life, told from Zelda’s point of view. The Only Woman in the Room by Marie Benedict brings readers into the secret life of Hollywood actress and wartime scientist, Hedy Lamarr. These imagined biographies, while often whimsical, still respect the form in that they depend heavily on facts when creating setting, plot, and characters.

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Meaning of biography in English

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• This biography offers a few glimpses of his life before he became famous .
• Her biography revealed that she was not as rich as everyone thought .
• The biography was a bit of a rush job .
• The biography is an attempt to uncover the inner man.
• The biography is woven from the many accounts which exist of things she did.
• exercise book
• novelistically
• young adult

biography | Intermediate English

• biographical

Examples of biography

Translations of biography.

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love someone to the moon and back

to love someone very much, usually used to tell someone how much you love them

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Definition of bio

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of bio-  (Entry 2 of 2)

Examples of bio in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'bio.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1947, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near bio

Cite this entry.

“Bio.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bio. Accessed 19 Jul. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of bio-.

Combining form

from Greek bi-, bio- "life"

More from Merriam-Webster on bio

Nglish: Translation of bio for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of bio for Arabic Speakers

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Biographies: The Stories of Humanity

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A biography is a story of a person's life, written by another author. The writer of a biography is called a biographer while the person written about is known as the subject or biographee.

Biographies usually take the form of a narrative , proceeding chronologically through the stages of a person's life. American author Cynthia Ozick notes in her essay "Justice (Again) to Edith Wharton" that a good biography is like a novel, wherein it believes in the idea of a life as "a triumphal or tragic story with a shape, a story that begins at birth, moves on to a middle part, and ends with the death of the protagonist."

A biographical essay is a comparatively short work of nonfiction  about certain aspects of a person's life. By necessity, this sort of essay  is much more selective than a full-length biography, usually focusing only on key experiences and events in the subject's life.

Between History and Fiction

Perhaps because of this novel-like form, biographies fit squarely between written history and fiction, wherein the author often uses personal flairs and must invent details "filling in the gaps" of the story of a person's life that can't be gleaned from first-hand or available documentation like home movies, photographs, and written accounts.

Some critics of the form argue it does a disservice to both history and fiction, going so far as to call them "unwanted offspring, which has brought a great embarrassment to them both," as Michael Holroyd puts it in his book "Works on Paper: The Craft of Biography and Autobiography." Nabokov even called biographers "psycho-plagiarists," meaning that they steal the psychology of a person and transcribe it to the written form.

Biographies are distinct from creative non-fiction such as memoir in that biographies are specifically about one person's full life story -- from birth to death -- while creative non-fiction is allowed to focus on a variety of subjects, or in the case of memoirs certain aspects of an individual's life.

Writing a Biography

For writers who want to pen another person's life story, there are a few ways to spot potential weaknesses, starting with making sure proper and ample research has been conducted -- pulling resources such as newspaper clippings, other academic publications, and recovered documents and found footage.  

First and foremost, it is the duty of biographers to avoid misrepresenting the subject as well as acknowledging the research sources they used. Writers should, therefore, avoid presenting a personal bias for or against the subject as being objective is key to conveying the person's life story in full detail.

Perhaps because of this, John F. Parker observes in his essay "Writing: Process to Product" that some people find writing a biographical essay "easier than writing an  autobiographical  essay. Often it takes less effort to write about others than to reveal ourselves." In other words, in order to tell the full story, even the bad decisions and scandals have to make the page in order to truly be authentic.

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Literary Devices

Literary devices, terms, and elements, definition of biography, difference between biography and autobiography, common examples of biography, significance of biography in literature.

The genre of biography developed out of other forms of historical nonfiction, choosing to focus on one specific person’s experience rather than all important players. There are examples of biography all the way back to 44 B.C. when Roman biographer Cornelius Nepos wrote Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae (“Lives of those capable of commanding”). The Greek historian Plutarch was also famous for his biographies, creating a series of biographies of famous Greeks and Romans in his book Parallel Lives . After the printing press was created, one of the first “bestsellers” was the 1550 famous biography Lives of the Artists by Giorgio Vasari. Biography then got very popular in the 18th century with James Boswell’s 1791 publication of The Life of Samuel Johnson . Biography continues to be one of the best selling genres in literature, and has led to a number of literary prizes specifically for this form.

Examples of Biography in Literature

And I can imagine Farmer saying he doesn’t care if no one else is willing to follow their example. He’s still going to make these hikes, he’d insist, because if you say that seven hours is too long to walk for two families of patients, you’re saying that their lives matter less than some others’, and the idea that some lives matter less is the root of all that’s wrong with the world.

Tracy Kidder’s wonderful example of biography, Mountains Beyond Mountains , brought the work of Dr. Paul Farmer to a wider audience. Dr. Farmer cofounded the organization Partners in Health (PIH) in 1987 to provide free treatment to patients in Haiti; the organization later created similar projects in countries such as Russia, Peru, and Rwanda. Dr. Farmer was not necessarily a famous man before Tracy Kidder’s biography was published, though he was well-regarded in his own field. The biography describes Farmer’s work as well as some of his personal life.

On July 2, McCandless finished reading Tolstoy’s “Family Happiness”, having marked several passages that moved him: “He was right in saying that the only certain happiness in life is to live for others…” Then, on July 3, he shouldered his backpack and began the twenty-mile hike to the improved road. Two days later, halfway there, he arrived in heavy rain at the beaver ponds that blocked access to the west bank of the Teklanika River. In April they’d been frozen over and hadn’t presented an obstacle. Now he must have been alarmed to find a three-acre lake covering the trail.

A commanding woman versed in politics, diplomacy, and governance; fluent in nine languages; silver-tongued and charismatic, Cleopatra nonetheless seems the joint creation of Roman propagandists and Hollywood directors.

Stacy Schiff wrote a new biography of Cleopatra in 2010 in order to divide fact from fiction, and go back to the amazing and intriguing personality of the woman herself. The biography was very well received for being both scrupulously referenced as well as highly literary and imaginative.

Confident that he was clever, resourceful, and bold enough to escape any predicament, [Louie] was almost incapable of discouragement. When history carried him into war, this resilient optimism would define him.

( Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption by Laura Hillenbrand)

I remember sitting in his backyard in his garden, one day, and he started talking about God. He [Jobs] said, “ Sometimes I believe in God, sometimes I don’t. I think it’s 50/50, maybe. But ever since I’ve had cancer, I’ve been thinking about it more, and I find myself believing a bit more, maybe it’s because I want to believe in an afterlife, that when you die, it doesn’t just all disappear. The wisdom you’ve accumulated, somehow it lives on.”

Test Your Knowledge of Biography

2. Which of the following scenarios qualifies as a biography? A. A famous person contracts a ghostwriter to create an autobiography. B. A famous author writes the true and incredible life story of a little known person. C. A writer creates a book detailing the most important moments in her own life. [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #2″] Answer: B is the correct answer.[/spoiler]

3. Which of the following statements is true? A. Biographies are one of the best selling genres in contemporary literature. B. Biographies are always written about famous people. C. Biographies were first written in the 18th century. [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #3″] Answer: A is the correct answer.[/spoiler]

What Is a Biography? Definition & 25+ Examples

Have you ever wondered what lies beneath the surface of history’s most influential figures?

Imagine a chance to delve into the intricate tapestry of their lives, unraveling the threads that have woven together the very essence of their character, and unearthing the pivotal moments that shaped their destinies.

Welcome to the enthralling world of biographies, where you are invited to embark on a captivating journey into the lives of the extraordinary. Prepare to be captivated by the compelling tales of human resilience, ingenuity, and ambition that lie at the heart of each biography.

Table of Contents

Defining Biography

A biography is a detailed account of a person’s life, written by someone other than the subject. The term “biography” is derived from two Greek words: “bio,” which means life, and “graphy,” which signifies writing. Thus, a biography is the written history of someone’s life, offering an in-depth look at their experiences, achievements, and challenges.

Biographies typically focus on the life of notable individuals, such as historical figures or celebrities, and provide a comprehensive view of their personal and professional journey.

Biographers, the authors of these works, aim to offer an accurate, well-researched portrayal of their subjects by studying various sources and conducting interviews if possible. This thorough research and attention to detail ensure that the resulting narrative is both informative and engaging.

Biographies are a subgenre of non-fiction literature, as they chronicle the lives of real people. However, not all life stories fall under the category of biography.

Autobiographies and memoirs, for instance, focus on the author’s own experiences and are written from a first-person perspective. While autobiographies aim to present an overarching narrative of the author’s life, memoirs tend to focus on specific incidents or periods.

When crafting a biography, it is essential for the biographer to maintain a neutral tone, avoiding any judgment or personal bias. This objectivity allows readers to form their opinions based on the presented facts, gaining a broader understanding of the subject.

Elements of a Biography

A well-crafted biography contains several key elements that provide a comprehensive picture of the subject’s life. These elements help readers gain a deeper understanding of the subject while fostering an emotional connection. Below are some essential aspects of a biography:

Personal and Family Background

The personal and family background section of a biography provides an essential foundation for understanding the subject’s journey and the factors that shaped their life. By exploring the subject’s early years, readers gain insight into the environment and experiences that influenced their character, values, and aspirations.

This section typically begins with an overview of the subject’s birthplace, family origins, and cultural heritage. It delves into the family dynamics, including descriptions of the subject’s parents, siblings, and extended family, shedding light on the relationships that played a crucial role in their development.

The personal and family background section also addresses significant life events, challenges, and milestones that occurred during the subject’s upbringing. These formative experiences may include pivotal moments, such as moving to a new city, attending a particular school, or encountering a mentor who had a lasting impact on their life.

Education and Career

The education and career section of a biography is crucial for understanding the intellectual and professional development of the subject. By tracing the subject’s academic journey and career progression, readers gain a clearer picture of the knowledge, skills, and experiences that shaped their path and contributed to their success.

This section begins by outlining the subject’s educational background, including the schools they attended, the degrees or qualifications they obtained, and any specialized training they received. It also highlights the subject’s academic achievements, such as scholarships, awards, or distinctions, and any influential mentors or teachers who played a significant role in their intellectual growth.

The education and career section also delves into the subject’s professional life, chronicling their work history, job titles, and key responsibilities. It explores the subject’s career trajectory, examining how they transitioned between roles or industries and the factors that influenced their choices.

Major Events and Turning Points

The major events and turning points section of a biography delves into the pivotal moments and experiences that significantly influenced the subject’s life, shaping their character, values, and destiny.

By exploring these transformative events, readers gain a deeper understanding of the forces and circumstances that drove the subject’s actions and choices, as well as the challenges and triumphs they faced along the way.

This section encompasses a wide range of events, which could include personal milestones, such as marriage, the birth of children, or the loss of a loved one.

These personal events often provide insights into the subject’s emotional landscape and reveal the support systems, relationships, and personal values that sustained them through difficult times or propelled them to greater heights.

Influences and Inspirations

The influences and inspirations section of a biography delves into the individuals, ideas, and events that had a profound impact on the subject’s beliefs, values, and aspirations.

By understanding the forces that shaped the subject’s worldview, readers gain a deeper appreciation for the motivations driving their actions and decisions, as well as the creative and intellectual foundations upon which their accomplishments were built.

This section often begins by identifying the key figures who played a significant role in the subject’s life, such as family members, mentors, peers, or historical figures they admired.

It explores the nature of these relationships and how they shaped the subject’s perspectives, values, and ambitions. These influential individuals can provide valuable insights into the subject’s personal growth and development, revealing the sources of inspiration and guidance that fueled their journey.

The influences and inspirations section also delves into the ideas and philosophies that resonated with the subject and shaped their worldview. This could include an exploration of the subject’s religious, political, or philosophical beliefs, as well as the books, theories, or artistic movements that inspired them.

This section examines the events, both personal and historical, that impacted the subject’s life and inspired their actions. These could include moments of personal transformation, such as a life-altering experience or an epiphany, or broader societal events, such as wars, social movements, or technological innovations.

Contributions and Impact

The contributions and impact section of a biography is pivotal in conveying the subject’s lasting significance, both in their chosen profession and beyond. By detailing their achievements, innovations, and legacies, this section helps readers grasp the extent of the subject’s influence and the ways in which their work has shaped the world around them.

This section begins by highlighting the subject’s key accomplishments within their profession, such as breakthroughs, discoveries, or innovative techniques they developed. It delves into the processes and challenges they faced along the way, providing valuable insights into their creativity, determination, and problem-solving abilities.

The contributions and impact section also explores the subject’s broader influence on society, culture, or the world at large. This could include their involvement in social or political movements, their philanthropic endeavors, or their role as a cultural icon.

In addition to discussing the subject’s immediate impact, this section also considers their lasting legacy, exploring how their work has continued to inspire and shape subsequent generations.

This could involve examining the subject’s influence on their successors, the institutions or organizations they helped establish, or the enduring relevance of their ideas and achievements in contemporary society.

Personal Traits and Characteristics

The personal traits and characteristics section of a biography brings the subject to life, offering readers an intimate glimpse into their personality, qualities, and views.

This section often begins by outlining the subject’s defining personality traits, such as their temperament, values, and passions. By exploring these attributes, readers gain insight into the subject’s character and the motivations driving their actions and decisions.

These qualities could include their perseverance, curiosity, empathy, or sense of humor, which may help explain their achievements, relationships, and outlook on life.

The personal traits and characteristics section also delves into the subject’s views and beliefs, offering a window into their thoughts and opinions on various topics. This could include their perspectives on politics, religion, culture, or social issues, providing readers with a clearer understanding of the context in which they operated and the factors that shaped their worldview.

Anecdotes and personal stories play a crucial role in illustrating the subject’s personality and characteristics, as they offer concrete examples of their behavior, actions, or interactions with others.

Quotes and first-hand accounts from the subject or those who knew them well can also be invaluable in portraying their personal traits and characteristics. These accounts offer unique insights into the subject’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences, allowing readers to see the world through their eyes and better understand their character.

Types of Biographies

Biographies come in various forms and styles, each presenting unique perspectives on the lives of individuals. Some of the most common types of biographies are discussed in the following sub-sections.

Historical Fiction Biography

Historical fiction biographies artfully weave together factual information with imaginative elements, creating a vibrant tapestry of the past. By staying true to the core of a historical figure’s life and accomplishments, these works offer a unique window into their world while granting authors the creative freedom to delve deeper into their emotions, relationships, and personal struggles.

Such biographies strike a delicate balance, ensuring that the essence of the individual remains intact while allowing for fictional embellishments to bring their story to life. This captivating blend of fact and fiction serves to humanize these iconic figures, making their experiences more relatable and engaging for readers who embark on a journey through the pages of history.

Here are several examples of notable historical fiction biographies:

• “Wolf Hall” by Hilary Mantel (2009)
• “The Paris Wife” by Paula McLain (2011)
• “Girl with a Pearl Earring” by Tracy Chevalier (1999)
• “The Other Boleyn Girl” by Philippa Gregory (2001)
• “Loving Frank” by Nancy Horan (2007)

Academic Biography

Academic biographies stand as meticulously researched and carefully crafted scholarly works, dedicated to presenting an accurate and comprehensive account of a subject’s life.

Authored by experts or researchers well-versed in their field, these biographies adhere to rigorous standards of accuracy, sourcing, and objectivity. They delve into the intricacies of a person’s life, achievements, and impact, scrutinizing every aspect with scholarly precision.

Intended for an educated audience, academic biographies serve as valuable resources for those seeking a deeper understanding of the subject’s contributions and influence. By placing the individual within the broader context of their time, these works illuminate the complex web of factors that shaped their lives and legacies.

While academic biographies may not always carry the same narrative flair as their fictional counterparts, their commitment to factual integrity and thorough analysis make them indispensable resources for scholars, students, and enthusiasts alike

Here are several examples of notable academic biographies:

• “Einstein: His Life and Universe” by Walter Isaacson (2007)
• “Steve Jobs” by Walter Isaacson (2011)
• “John Adams” by David McCullough (2001)
• “Alexander the Great” by Robin Lane Fox (1973)
• “Marie Curie: A Life” by Susan Quinn (1995)

Authorized Biographies

Authorized biographies offer a unique perspective on the lives of their subjects, as they are written with the explicit consent and, often, active participation of the individual in question.

This collaboration between the biographer and the subject can lead to a more accurate, detailed, and intimate portrayal of the person’s life, as the author is granted access to a wealth of personal information, documents, and anecdotes that might otherwise be inaccessible.

When working on an authorized biography, the biographer is typically given permission to access personal documents, such as letters, diaries, and photographs, which can provide invaluable insights into the subject’s thoughts, emotions, and experiences.

This primary source material allows the biographer to construct a narrative that is grounded in fact and captures the essence of the individual’s life and personality.

Here are several examples of notable authorized biographies:

• “Mandela: The Authorized Biography” by Anthony Sampson (1999)
• “Marilyn Monroe: The Biography” by Donald Spoto (1993)
• “Joni Mitchell: In Her Own Words” by Malka Marom (2014)
• “The Snowball: Warren Buffett and the Business of Life” by Alice Schroeder (2008)
• “Notorious RBG: The Life and Times of Ruth Bader Ginsburg” by Irin Carmon and Shana Knizhnik (2015)

Fictionalized Academic Biography

Fictionalized academic biographies merge the best of both worlds, combining the rigorous research and scholarly integrity of academic biographies with the engaging storytelling of historical fiction.

Authors of these works expertly navigate the delicate balance between maintaining factual accuracy and venturing into the realm of imagination.

This approach allows them to explore the subject’s personal life, relationships, and the broader historical context in a compelling manner, while ensuring the narrative remains firmly rooted in well-researched facts.

Here are several examples of notable fictionalized academic biographies:

• “The Women” by T.C. Boyle (2009)
• “Z: A Novel of Zelda Fitzgerald” by Therese Anne Fowler (2013)
• “The Marriage of Opposites” by Alice Hoffman (2015)
• “Vanessa and Her Sister” by Priya Parmar (2014)
• “The Last Days of Night” by Graham Moore (2016)

Prophetic Biography

Prophetic biographies delve into the rich and profound narratives of religious figures or prophets, meticulously weaving together insights from sacred texts, religious traditions, and historical accounts.

By providing a comprehensive portrayal of the individual’s life, teachings, and impact on society, these biographies serve as an invaluable resource for understanding the pivotal role these figures played in shaping the course of religious history and the lives of the faithful.

Here are several examples of notable prophetic biographies:

• “Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources” by Martin Lings (1983)
• “The Life of Moses” by F.B. Meyer (1893)
• “The Life of the Buddha: According to the Pali Canon” by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (1972)
• “The Quest of the Historical Jesus” by Albert Schweitzer (1906)
• “The Lives of the Saints” by Alban Butler (1756)

Biography Development Process

A biography is a comprehensive written account of an individual’s life, and the development process involves several essential components to ensure the biography’s accuracy and readability.

A biographer’s primary responsibility is to conduct extensive research in order to gather a comprehensive array of facts about the subject. This meticulous process involves reviewing various documents and sources that shed light on the individual’s life and experiences, as well as the historical context in which they lived.

Key documents, such as birth and death certificates, provide essential information about the subject’s origins and family background. Personal correspondence, letters, and diaries offer invaluable insights into the subject’s thoughts, emotions, relationships, and experiences. News articles, on the other hand, can reveal public perceptions of the subject, as well as their impact on society and culture.

Archives often serve as treasure troves of information for biographers, as they contain a wealth of primary sources that can help illuminate the subject’s life and times. These archives may include collections of personal papers, photographs, audio recordings, and other materials that offer first-hand accounts of the individual’s experiences or shed light on their accomplishments and impact.

Consulting relevant books and articles is another crucial aspect of a biographer’s research process, as these secondary sources provide context, analysis, and interpretation of the subject’s life and work.

By delving into the existing scholarship and engaging with the works of other researchers, biographers can solidify their understanding of the individual and the historical circumstances in which they lived.

Interviewing people who knew the subject personally is a vital component of a biographer’s research process, as it allows them to access unique insights, personal stories, and firsthand accounts of the individual’s life.

Friends, family members, co-workers, and colleagues can all offer valuable perspectives on the subject’s character, relationships, achievements, and challenges, thereby enriching the biographer’s understanding of their life and experiences.

While subjective anecdotes offer a more intimate glimpse into the subject’s personality and personal life, it is essential for biographers to balance these accounts with factual research.

By corroborating and contextualizing personal stories with objective information gleaned from primary and secondary sources, biographers can ensure that their portrayal of the individual’s life remains accurate and well-rounded.

This process of balancing subjective anecdotes with factual research also allows biographers to present a more nuanced and comprehensive view of their subject. By weaving together personal stories with historical context, biographers can create a richer and more engaging narrative that captures the complexity and multifaceted nature of the individual’s life.

In addition, by considering various perspectives and sources of information, biographers can address potential biases or discrepancies in their account, resulting in a more reliable and credible portrayal of the subject.

This careful attention to detail and commitment to accuracy not only enhances the quality of the biography but also helps establish trust between the biographer and their readers.

Chronological Narration

Organizing a biography in a chronological manner is a highly effective approach, as it allows readers to follow the subject’s life events in a logical and coherent sequence.

By presenting the information in a linear fashion, the biographer enables readers to trace the subject’s journey from their early years to their later accomplishments, making it easier to understand the context and progression of their life.

To effectively arrange a chronological narrative, the biographer should begin by highlighting significant milestones and accomplishments in the subject’s life. These key events serve as anchor points in the story, helping to structure the narrative and maintain the reader’s interest.

By focusing on these pivotal moments, the biographer can illustrate the subject’s growth, development, and achievements over time, providing a clear and engaging overview of their life’s trajectory.

Contextualization

Contextualizing the subject within their historical and cultural framework is a crucial aspect of biographical writing, as it enables readers to gain a deeper understanding of the individual’s life, choices, and significance.

Embedding the subject within their historical context involves examining the political, social, and economic landscape of the time. This includes exploring major events, trends, and issues that affected the subject’s life and decisions, such as wars, social movements, technological advancements, or cultural shifts.

Additionally, considering the subject’s cultural context is essential for understanding their beliefs, values, and creative expression. This involves examining the artistic, intellectual, and philosophical currents of the time, which may have influenced the subject’s work, ideas, or relationships.

Moreover, contextualizing the subject within their historical and cultural framework can help to humanize them, revealing the complexities, contradictions, and struggles that are often inherent in the human experience.

This approach offers readers a more nuanced and empathetic understanding of the subject, allowing them to see the person as a product of their time and circumstances, rather than as an isolated figure.

Famous Biographies and Biographers

The life of samuel johnson, ll.d. by james boswell (1791).

“The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.” is a biography of the English writer and literary critic Samuel Johnson, written by his friend and contemporary James Boswell. Published in 1791, it is often considered one of the greatest biographies in the English language and a pioneering work in the development of modern biography as a literary genre.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) was a prominent figure in 18th-century English literature, known for his wide-ranging knowledge, wit, and moral authority. He is best remembered for his dictionary, “A Dictionary of the English Language,” published in 1755, which became the standard English dictionary for over a century. He was also a prolific essayist, poet, and critic.

James Boswell (1740-1795) was a Scottish lawyer, diarist, and author who became friends with Johnson in 1763. Over the course of their friendship, Boswell made detailed notes of their conversations and observations, which he later used as the basis for his biography.

“The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.” is a comprehensive and vivid portrait of Johnson’s life, character, and work. Boswell covers Johnson’s early years, education, and struggles with poverty and illness, as well as his rise to prominence as a writer and his involvement in the vibrant literary circles of 18th-century London.

The biography also delves into Johnson’s friendships and relationships, including his long association with Hester Thrale, a prominent society hostess, and writer.

What sets Boswell’s biography apart is his skill in capturing Johnson’s personality, wit, and conversation. By presenting Johnson’s thoughts and opinions on a wide range of topics, as well as anecdotes and reminiscences from those who knew him, Boswell creates a vivid and engaging portrait of his subject.

The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (2010)

“The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks” is a non-fiction book written by Rebecca Skloot, published in 2010. The book tells the story of Henrietta Lacks, an African American woman whose cancer cells were taken without her knowledge or consent during a biopsy in 1951. These cells, known as HeLa cells, became the first immortal human cell line, reproducing indefinitely under laboratory conditions.

HeLa cells have been used extensively in medical research, contributing to significant scientific breakthroughs, such as the development of the polio vaccine, gene mapping, and cancer research.

Henrietta Lacks was a young mother of five when she was diagnosed with an aggressive form of cervical cancer at the age of 31. She received treatment at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, where a sample of her cancerous tissue was taken without her knowledge. Henrietta passed away in 1951, but her cells continued to live on, revolutionizing medical research.

Rebecca Skloot spent more than a decade researching Henrietta Lacks’ life and the scientific history of HeLa cells. Skloot also interviewed Lacks’ surviving family members, who were unaware of Henrietta’s contribution to science until the 1970s.

The book explores the ethical issues surrounding the use of human tissue in research, the question of consent, and the lack of compensation for the Lacks family.

Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow (2004)

“Alexander Hamilton” is a comprehensive biography of the American Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, written by historian and biographer Ron Chernow. Published in 2004, the book provides an in-depth look into Hamilton’s life, from his humble beginnings in the West Indies to his significant contributions as a statesman, economist, and influential figure in early American history.

Chernow’s biography delves into Hamilton’s early life as an orphan in the Caribbean, his immigration to the American colonies, and his education. It also explores his involvement in the American Revolutionary War, where he served as an aide to General George Washington and later as an artillery officer.

The book details Hamilton’s role in the development of the United States Constitution and his work as the first Secretary of the Treasury under President Washington, where he was instrumental in establishing the nation’s financial system.

“Alexander Hamilton” also examines Hamilton’s personal life, including his relationships, marriage, and infamous extramarital affair, as well as his longstanding political rivalries with figures such as Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Aaron Burr. The biography concludes with the story of Hamilton’s tragic death in a duel with Burr in 1804.

It received critical acclaim and won several awards, including the George Washington Book Prize. The biography also inspired Lin-Manuel Miranda to create the hit Broadway musical “Hamilton,” which premiered in 2015 and went on to achieve widespread popularity and numerous accolades, further solidifying Alexander Hamilton’s place in popular culture and history.

Notable Biographies in Different Fields

Science and technology.

Biographies in the field of science and technology offer fascinating insights into the lives and minds of extraordinary individuals who have made significant advancements in their respective fields.

These biographies often provide an in-depth look at the personal and professional lives of scientists, inventors, engineers, and other innovators, highlighting their discoveries, inventions, and contributions to human knowledge and progress.

Arts and Literature

Biographies of artists, actors, and writers often provide captivating and inspiring accounts of the lives of these creative individuals. By examining their personal and professional journeys, these biographies allow readers to gain a deeper understanding of the inspirations, motivations, and challenges that have shaped their subjects’ artistic achievements.

These biographies often delve into the early lives of their subjects, exploring formative experiences that may have influenced their creative paths. They also examine the artistic processes and the development of the subjects’ distinctive styles, providing valuable insights into their creative methodologies, influences, and inspirations.

Sports and Athletics

Biographies of athletes provide riveting accounts of the lives and careers of remarkable individuals who have achieved greatness in the world of sports. These stories often serve as powerful sources of inspiration, showcasing the dedication, perseverance, and triumphs of athletes who have overcome obstacles and pushed the boundaries of human potential.

These biographies delve into the formative experiences of their subjects, exploring how early influences, innate talent, and personal motivations led them to pursue athletic excellence. They also provide insights into the rigorous training regimens, discipline, and sacrifices that athletes make to achieve their goals, highlighting the incredible determination and work ethic that underpin their success.

Additionally, biographies of athletes often touch on the personal challenges and setbacks these individuals have faced, such as injuries, controversies, or personal struggles.

Historical Figures

Biographies of historical figures offer a unique window into the lives, personalities, and experiences of individuals who have left lasting impacts on the world. By delving into the stories of these influential people, readers can gain a deeper understanding of the political, social, and cultural contexts that shaped their actions and decisions, as well as the lasting legacies they left behind.

These biographies often provide richly detailed accounts of their subjects’ lives, including their upbringing, education, relationships, and personal struggles. By exploring the complex facets of these individuals, biographies help to humanize historical figures, providing a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of their motivations, beliefs, and actions.

In addition to personal narratives, biographies of historical figures often weave together broader historical contexts and events. This allows readers to gain valuable insights into the social, political, and cultural forces that influenced their subjects’ lives and decisions.

Writing a Compelling Biography

A captivating biography requires more than just a simple retelling of a person’s life events. It delves into their personal experiences, relationships, and accomplishments, while maintaining an objective and authentic approach.

Being Objective and Authentic

An essential aspect of a well-written biography is its objectivity. The narrative should portray the real person, depicting their experiences and beliefs accurately.

While it can be tempting to embellish facts or minimize flaws, striving for authenticity is crucial in presenting a credible account. This involves thorough research and verification of facts, even when they contradict the author’s initial assumptions.

Authenticity also extends to the respectful portrayal of a subject’s relationships and exploration of their inner world, while avoiding speculation or gossip.

Balancing Personal and Public Life

When writing a biography, one must strike a balance between the subject’s personal and public life. This includes weaving together stories from their childhood, personal relationships, and major life events that may have shaped their character. The integration of both personal and public aspects contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of their vita.

However, careful consideration must be given to privacy concerns, and it is important to determine which aspects of the individual’s life are appropriate to disclose. Ultimately, the reader should gain insight into the person’s journey without feeling intrusive.

Creating Engaging Storylines

Just as in a novel, a great biography should feature engaging storylines that keep readers interested. This can be achieved by organizing the narrative around important events, challenges, and accomplishments that are relevant and compelling. To maintain a smooth flow, strategically transitioning between these key moments helps maintain reader interest.

The use of different perspectives, anecdotes, and historical context can also enhance the storyline. Paint vivid pictures of the settings, allowing readers to immerse themselves in the subject’s world. Furthermore, showcasing the subject’s resilience, growth, and impact, can contribute to a powerful and memorable biography.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can biographies be fictional or purely factual.

Biographies usually aim to present an accurate and factual representation of someone’s life. However, some authors might take creative liberties and incorporate fictionalized elements for dramatic or storytelling purposes.

It is crucial for readers to be aware of the author’s intentions and approach when reading such biographical works.

Can biographies be biased?

Biographies, like any form of writing, can be subject to biases depending on the author’s perspective, beliefs, or intentions.

It is essential for readers to critically evaluate biographies by considering factors such as the author’s credentials, potential biases, and the sources used in the research process.

By comparing multiple biographies on the same subject or cross-referencing with other sources, readers can develop a more comprehensive and balanced understanding of the individual’s life and achievements.

Are biographies always based on famous or historical figures?

While biographies often focus on famous or historical figures, they can also be written about lesser-known individuals with compelling stories or unique experiences.

These “everyday” biographies can provide valuable insights into the lives of ordinary people and the challenges they face, offering a broader understanding of the human experience and fostering empathy and connection among readers.

Are there any ethical considerations when writing a biography?

Yes, ethical considerations play a significant role in writing biographies.

Biographers must respect the privacy and dignity of their subjects, particularly when dealing with sensitive or personal information. They should also strive for accuracy and fairness, avoiding sensationalism or misrepresentation of facts.

Additionally, biographers should acknowledge and address any potential biases or conflicts of interest that may affect their portrayal of the subject.

Biographies offer us unparalleled access to the lives and legacies of remarkable individuals, spanning diverse genres and approaches.

From historical fiction to academic rigor, prophetic accounts to fictionalized narratives, biographies captivate our imagination and enrich our understanding of the human experience. These literary gems remind us that behind every great achievement lies a story of struggle, triumph, and unwavering determination.

So, let us continue to explore these remarkable journeys, as we delve deeper into the pages of history and the hearts of those who have shaped our world.

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biography noun

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What does the noun biography mean?

There are three meanings listed in OED's entry for the noun biography . See ‘Meaning & use’ for definitions, usage, and quotation evidence.

How common is the noun biography ?

How is the noun biography pronounced?

British english, u.s. english, where does the noun biography come from.

Earliest known use

The earliest known use of the noun biography is in the mid 1600s.

OED's earliest evidence for biography is from 1661, in the writing of John Fell, bishop of Oxford.

biography is a borrowing from Latin.

Etymons: Latin biographia .

Nearby entries

• biognosy, n. 1880
• biograph, n. 1825–
• biograph, v. 1776–
• biographee, n. 1812–
• biographer, n. 1644–
• biographic, adj. 1752–
• biographical, adj. 1668–
• biographically, adv. ?1719–
• biographist, n. a1661–
• biographize, v. 1793–
• biography, n. 1661–
• biography, v. 1794–
• biographying, n. 1858–
• biohacker, n. 1988–
• biohacking, n. 1992–
• biohazard, n. 1965–
• biohazardous, adj. 1973–
• bioherm, n. 1928–
• biohermal, adj. 1937–
• bioidentical, adj. 1995–
• bioimaging, n. 1983–

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Meaning & use

Pronunciation, compounds & derived words, entry history for biography, n..

biography, n. was revised in November 2010.

biography, n. was last modified in July 2023.

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• new senses, phrases, and quotations.

Revisions and additions of this kind were last incorporated into biography, n. in July 2023.

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Citation details

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Open Access

Essays articulate a specific perspective on a topic of broad interest to scientists.

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The immune modules conserved across the tree of life: Towards a definition of ancestral immunity

Roles Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] (AB); [email protected] (EZP)

Affiliation Molecular Diversity of Microbes laboratory, Institut Pasteur, CNRS UMR3525, Paris, France

Roles Writing – original draft

Affiliation Innate Immunity in Physiology and Cancer laboratory, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM U932, Paris, France

• Aude Bernheim, 
• Jean Cury, 
• Enzo Z. Poirier

Published: July 15, 2024

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002717
• Reader Comments

Immune defence mechanisms exist across the tree of life in such diversity that prokaryotic antiviral responses have historically been considered unrelated to eukaryotic immunity. Mechanisms of defence in divergent eukaryotes were similarly believed to be largely clade specific. However, recent data indicate that a subset of modules (domains and proteins) from prokaryote defence systems are conserved in eukaryotes and populate many stages of innate immune pathways. In this Essay, we propose the notion of ancestral immunity, which corresponds to the set of immune modules conserved between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. After offering a typology of ancestral immunity, we speculate on the selective pressures that could have led to the differential conservation of specific immune modules across domains of life. The exploration of ancestral immunity is in its infancy and appears full of promises to illuminate immune evolution, and also to identify and decipher immune mechanisms of economic, ecological, and therapeutic importance.

Citation: Bernheim A, Cury J, Poirier EZ (2024) The immune modules conserved across the tree of life: Towards a definition of ancestral immunity. PLoS Biol 22(7): e3002717. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002717

Copyright: © 2024 Bernheim et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: This work has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC, https://erc.europa.eu/homepage ) under the Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Starting Grant PECAN 101040529 to A.B. and Starting Grant STEMGUARD 101075865 to E.Z.P.) as well as funding from Institut Curie to E.Z.P. ( https://institut-curie.org ). This publication reflects only the authors’ view and the European Research Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Abbreviations: cGAS, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase; ISG, interferon-stimulated gene; LECA, last eukaryotic common ancestor; NLR, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat-containing protein; RNAi, RNA interference; TIR, Toll-interleukin-1 receptor; TLR, Toll-like receptor

Introduction

Historically, immunology research has focused largely on animals and plants linked to therapeutic and biotechnological purposes. Complex immune strategies have been discovered in these organisms, including human innate immunity, during which pathogen infection results in the production of proinflammatory cytokines and the up-regulation of hundreds of anti-pathogen effectors termed interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs; Box 1 ) [ 1 , 2 ]. Plant and invertebrate immunity rely on different mechanisms such as the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway, which targets viruses in a sequence-specific manner [ 3 ]. These differences led to the widely accepted assumption that immune mechanisms would be clade specific, with little overlap between clades. As such, the immune defences of humans would be expected to be fundamentally different from those of Arabidopsis thaliana , as each is targeted by a different pool of pathogens. The constant arms race between pathogen and host indeed results in swift evolution of immune defence mechanisms tailored to a given pathogen or category of pathogens [ 4 ]. Under this assumption, defence mechanisms preventing bacteria from being infected by viruses (bacteriophages; also known as phages) would similarly be expected to be prokaryote specific. In line with this notion, 2 major antiphage defence mechanisms, restriction-modification enzymes and CRISPR-Cas enzymes, are absent in eukaryotes [ 5 ]. Recently, more than 150 antiphage systems with extremely diverse molecular mechanisms were identified [ 6 ]. Concomitant to the unravelling of bacterial immune defence was the realisation that some antiphage systems are in fact conserved in eukaryotes [ 7 – 9 ]. For example, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-like enzymes, which produce cyclic dinucleotide second messengers upon pathogen detection, and viperins, which generate modified nucleotides blocking viral replication, protect bacteria and humans alike. Contrary to the conceptual framework of clade-specific immune mechanisms, a fraction of immune modules (domains or proteins involved in defence) are conserved between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Box 1. Glossary

Italicised words are defined within the glossary.

Abortive infection is the outcome of activation of numerous antiphage systems and results in the demise of infected bacteria, safeguarding the bacterial population by preventing generation of new virions. Abortive infection can be carried out by depletion of pivotal metabolites such as NAD+ (see CBASS and Thoeris ) or by membrane permeabilization (see Caspases and Gasdermins ).

Ancestral immunity refers to the immune modules (proteins and domains) conserved between certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic species. An ancestral immune module is not necessarily present in all prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Antiphage systems are mechanisms of defence that protect bacteria from infection by viruses termed bacteriophages (also known as phages), either by intervening during the phage’s replication cycle, or by triggering the demise of infected bacteria (via abortive infection ). See CBASS , and Thoeris for examples.

Avs are a family of antiphage systems regrouping different proteins that encode a signal transduction ATPases with numerous domains (STAND). Some Avs systems detect the terminase and portal proteins of phages. Avs may be at the evolutionary origin of NLRs .

Caspases and gasdermins are active in antiphage defence as well as in innate immunity of animals. Caspases are immune proteases that activate gasdermins by proteolytic cleavage. Cleaved gasdermins oligomerize into membranes, forming permeabilizing pores responsible for cell demise.

CBASS/Pycsar is an antiphage system that depends on CD-NTases—cGAS-like enzymes that detect phage infection. Detection leads to the production of a cyclic nucleotide second messenger that activates a downstream effector, inducing cell death. In certain cases, the effector is a STING protein fused to a TIR domain , which depletes cellular NAD+ upon activation (resulting in abortive infection ). cGAS and STING are conserved in metazoans.

cGAS/STING and cGLRs refer to innate immune pathways of metazoans that detect bacterial and viral nucleic acids, leading to the production of inflammatory cytokines. In humans, cGAS detects cytosolic double-stranded DNA (e.g., from herperviruses) and produces the second messenger cGAMP, which signals to STING. cGAS-like receptors (cGLRs) are metazoan homologs of cGAS that can detect nucleic acid species other than DNA and produce various cyclic nucleotide second messengers. cGAS and STING originate from antiphage systems (see CBASS/Pycsar ).

CRISPR-Cas is an antiphage system that protects bacteria by sequence-specific targeting of phage genomic material. Guide RNAs corresponding to phage sequences, encoded within the bacterial chromosome, guide the activity of the inhibitory Cas protein. CRISPR-Cas systems have been repurposed as a tool for genome editing.

Detocs (defensive two-component system) is a family of 3-gene defence systems. Upon phage recognition, Detocs degrades ATP, which can lead to premature phage lysis or abortive infection . The best-described Detocs system uses a PNP effector, which specifically cleaves ATP molecules into adenine and ribose-5′-triphosphate. PNP domains have been detected in eukaryotic proteins with immune-like architectures.

Horizontal gene transfer is the process by which 2 organisms exchange genetic material. Horizontal gene transfer is fundamental to prokaryotic biology but is less prominent in eukaryotes.

Innate immunity is one of the first lines of defence triggered by pathogen infection in metazoans . In humans, pathogen detection leads to the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-18, as well as interferons. These mediators broadly signal to induce an anti-pathogen state within the host. Interferons trigger the production of hundreds of anti-pathogen effectors termed interferon-stimulated genes ( ISGs ). Cytokines also prompt the activation of adaptive immunity. Inflammation corresponds to the defensive state downstream of the stimulation of innate immunity, which can be abnormally activated in pathological conditions (autoimmunity).

Interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) are anti-pathogen effectors transcriptionally up-regulated during the activation of innate immunity in metazoans; 300 to 400 ISGs restrict infection via various mechanisms (see viperins ).

Metazoans . Group comprising all animals.

NLRs are pivotal proteins of innate immunity that detect pathogen infection as well as discontinuities of cellular physiology. Upon activation, they are involved in the formation of the inflammasome—a multiproteic platform dedicated to immune signalling. NLRs likely originate from antiphage systems such as Avs .

piRNA pathway is an animal mechanism of defence that protects the germline from the mobilisation of transposable elements. It relies on the Argonaute (Ago) family of proteins, which originate from antiphage systems and are also present in the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway.

Restriction-modification is an antiphage system that relies on the cleavage of phage genomes by a sequence-specific restriction enzyme. Bacterial DNA is protected from degradation by chemical modification. Restriction enzymes, widely used for experimental nucleic acid manipulation, originate from restriction-modification systems.

Retrons are antiphage systems composed of a reverse transcriptase, a noncoding RNA and an effector protein. Retrons generate DNA/RNA hybrids and function as tripartite toxin/antitoxin systems.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a mechanism of defence against viruses and transposable elements in plants, fungi, and animals. It relies on the activity of a Dicer protein, which recognises “foreign” nucleic acid and guides its degradation by the endonuclease Ago.

SPARTA is an antiphage system comprising a short prokaryotic Ago, with an APAZ domain fused to a TIR domain . SPARTA systems trigger cell death by depletion of NAD(P)+.

Thoeris is an antiphage system that depends on the detection of infection by ThsB, which bears a TIR domain that produces a second messenger, cADPR, from NAD+ degradation. cADPR activates ThsA, which leads to abortive infection through degradation of cellular NAD+.

TIR domains are domains present in antiphage systems, in which they participate in immune signal transduction (see Thoeris ) or are responsible for abortive infection (see SPARTA ). In animals, TIR domains of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a pivotal role in signal transduction via protein–protein interactions, leading to the activation of innate immunity .

Viperins are an antiphage system of bacteria; they are conserved across the tree of life and are present in humans as an ISG . Viperins produce modified nucleotides (ddh-nucleotides) that act as RNA chain terminators.

In this Essay, we propose the concept of ancestral immunity, which designates the pool of eukaryotic immune modules originating from prokaryotic immune defences. These modules are not necessarily present in all organisms but are detected across domains of life. We consider the following questions: what are the modules constituting ancestral immunity in terms of sequence, structure, and mechanism; how are these modules positioned in the tree of life; what are the selective pressures driving the existence of ancestral immunity; and why are some common building blocks of antiphage defence absent from ancestral immunity?

The modules of ancestral immunity: What is conserved across domains of life?

The term “conservation” requires scrutiny before applying it to the description of ancestral immunity. In the relevant literature, conservation is used to describe both shared ancestry (an evolutionary relationship between 2 proteins as captured by sequence and/or structural homology) and shared mechanisms, which can be performed by homologs or by evolutionarily unrelated proteins ( Fig 1 ). These 2 dimensions may or may not overlap ( Fig 1B ). Proteins that likely share common ancestry (with sequence and/or structural homology) can function through different mechanisms while immune mechanisms conserved across domains of life, such as nucleic acid-guided memory, could be performed by unrelated pathways, representing evolutionary convergence [ 5 ]. We focus here on modules that are conserved in the sense of shared ancestry.

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(A) Modules of ancestral immunity can be proteins, as exemplified by viperins, as well as domains, such as TIR domains, which are present in antiphage Thoeris and in mammalian TLRs. Eukaryotes also encode defences that are unrelated to those of bacteria, the mechanisms of which can be analogous to prokaryotic defence systems. For example, CRISPR-Cas of bacteria and the piRNA pathway of animals are 2 evolutionarily unrelated mechanisms of nucleic acid-guided memory [ 10 ]. Top panels: examples of prokaryotic (blue) and eukaryotic (green) proteins of interest. Structural comparison for viperins and TIR domains (generated with AlphaFold). Bottom panels summarise the modules’ mechanisms of action; prokaryotes are labelled in blue and eukaryotes in green. (B) Proposed classification for the modules of ancestral immunity according to shared ancestry (homology) and mechanism of action. VDJ recombination is an innovation of jawed vertebrates absent in bacteria, with no shared ancestry nor mechanistic conservation. Viperins display shared ancestry and mechanistic conservation. The boundaries of ancestral immunity are highlighted. Unknown mechanism refers to an undetermined molecular mechanism in prokaryotes and/or eukaryotes, despite a known (experimentally assessed) function in immunity. (C) Conservation of the modules of ancestral immunity in different clades of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Prokaryotes: the percentage of genomes in which the module is detected are represented by shades of blues (based on the DefenseFinder database [ 11 ]). Eukaryotes: as inferred from the literature, common (widely conserved), present (detected in some genomes), or absent. “?” indicates that the literature is insufficient to assess conservation. TIR, Toll-interleukin-1 receptor; TLR, Toll-like receptor.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002717.g001

A typology of ancestral immunity

Antiphage systems can be composed of a single protein or multiple proteins that act in concert, with each protein bearing one or several domains [ 6 ]. Recent work demonstrated that certain antiphage modules are conserved in eukaryotes and play a role in immune defence [ 12 – 28 ]. At least 10 examples of immune modules (i.e., protein domains or full proteins) shared by bacteria and eukaryotes have been documented ( Fig 1C ) [ 7 – 9 ].

Conservation of immune proteins across domains of life is perhaps best embodied by viperins, which are highly conserved at the structural and amino acid sequence levels across a range of bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic organisms [ 29 – 31 ]. These enzymes display a remarkably high degree of sequence similarity, with 42% shared identity between human viperin and its closest bacterial counterpart [ 12 , 32 ]. Bacterial viperin blocks phage infection by producing modified nucleotides that act as RNA chain terminators. The human viperin is an ISG that thwarts infection by a range of viruses through a similar mechanism. In mammals, other antiviral effectors such as GIMAPs and SAMHD1 similarly seem to originate from antiphage systems, albeit with less stringent conservation [ 24 , 33 ].

The Toll-interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) homology domain serves as an illustration of functional diversity from a common ancestor. TIR domains can function as antiphage effectors in bacteria, including in proteins of the Pycsar and SPARTA antiphage systems, by degrading NAD+ and causing cell death via an abortive infection mechanism [ 20 , 23 ]. In the bacterial Thoeris system, the TIR domain of the protein ThsB produces a second messenger derived from NAD+ processing that activates the antiphage response [ 26 ]. In plants, TIR domains perform immune signal transduction through their enzymatic activity [ 34 ]. In mammals, TIR domains constitute the cytosolic portion of Toll-like receptors (TLRs)—a group of pattern recognition receptors that detect pathogen infection [ 2 ]. TIRs of animal TLRs are devoid of enzymatic activity and rely instead on protein–protein interactions for signal transduction, inducing proinflammatory cytokine production. The TIR example demonstrates that a conserved domain can perform different biochemical actions within immune pathways.

The presence of conserved domains in different eukaryotic phyla does not necessarily imply that they originate from a common ancestor. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat-containing proteins (NLRs) are present in proteins of the Avs antiphage system, as well as in fungal immune actors and mammalian inflammasome proteins, and are responsible for inducible cell death downstream of infection [ 13 , 35 , 36 ]. However, NLRs evolved independently in plants and animals [ 37 ].

Antiphage CBASS/Pycsar systems comprise a cGAS-like nucleotidyltransferase enzyme that produces a cyclic di-nucleotide second messenger upon phage infection, which is responsible for the activation of an antiviral effector [ 20 , 25 ]. The nature of the effector is operon specific and can include a STING protein fused to a TIR domain [ 19 ]. cGAS and STING are conserved in metazoans and play a pivotal role in the activation of innate immunity upon DNA virus infection in humans [ 17 , 18 , 21 , 28 ]. In contrast to its role in bacteria, in humans STING is used as a signal transduction platform, inducing the production of proinflammatory cytokines [ 38 ].

Pathogen recognition in eukaryotes also results in cell demise, orchestrated by caspases and gasdermins [ 39 ]. Activated caspases cleave gasdermins, giving rise to pore-forming proteins that permeabilise the plasma membrane. There is sequence and structure conservation of caspases and gasdermins, respectively, indicating that such a cell death mechanism originates from bacteria [ 16 , 40 ].

The functional linkage of several ancestral immune modules within 1 pathway does not seem to be explained by bulk inheritance of all modules populating the pathway, but rather by convergent evolution, as observed with cGAS and STING, which were independently inherited in eukaryotes [ 29 ]. The activity of viperins depends on the synergistic action of the kinase CMPK2. In bacteria, 15% of genes encoding viperins are located next to genes encoding a kinase similar to CMPK2. Although human viperin seemingly emerged from an archaeal ancestor, CMPK2 is thought to have an independent bacterial origin [ 12 , 29 , 31 ]. Inheritance of multiple proteins of an antiphage system may resemble bulk pathway inheritance but could originate from separate events of protein acquisition followed by convergence in immune pathway assembly.

A conserved module can have an identical mechanism of action (e.g., viperins) or a host-specific mechanism (e.g., enzymatic TIRs in bacteria and plants and non-enzymatic TIRs of mammalian TLRs; Fig 1 ). By contrast, evolutionary convergence exists between unrelated pathways (e.g., nucleic acid-guided memory in bacteria and animals performed by CRISPR-Cas and the piRNA pathway, respectively) as do non-conserved mechanisms (restriction-modification specific to bacteria; VDJ recombination specific to jawed vertebrates) [ 10 ]. Such classification is, however, a matter of discussion. The hundreds of millions of years of evolution separating the bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic kingdoms led to significant divergence in sequence, which often makes the unambiguous attribution of common origin almost impossible. A rigorous definition of mechanistic conservation can also be debated: for example, should the module’s biochemistry be identical; and should the modules be triggered by a similar signal?

Conservation of antiphage modules in eukaryotic immunity is characteristic of tinkering evolution, with a combinatorial use of modules to build tailored pathways, as well as modifications of the modules’ properties adapted to specific host contexts.

What are the boundaries of ancestral immunity?

Belonging to ancestral immunity requires a module to perform an immune function in the prokaryotic and eukaryotic superkingdoms, with or without conservation of biochemical and molecular mechanisms. The extent to which a given module of ancestral immunity is conserved across the tree of life (i.e., the number of eukaryotic and prokaryotic species encoding at least 1 likely homolog) is highly variable ( Fig 1 ). Viperins are present in most clades of eukaryotes and prokaryotes but absent in plants [ 12 , 29 ]. cGAS is largely conserved in metazoans, with homologs forming a family of cGAS-like receptors (cGLRs) [ 18 , 24 ]. The establishment and interpretation of such data is hindered by current capacity to detect homologs of these pathways across long evolutionary distances and the limited number of available diverse eukaryotic genomes. The precise delineation of families of immune modules will require experimental validation and mechanistic studies. Nonetheless, focusing on well-established examples (in which homology is reliably detected) indicates a patchy distribution of ancestral immune modules. Interestingly, the most common systems in bacteria and archaea—CRISPR-Cas and restriction modification, which are present in more than 40% and 80% of prokaryotic genomes, respectively—are absent in eukaryotes ( Fig 1C ) [ 11 ]. Conversely, some very rare immune modules in bacteria, such as viperins (which are present in less than 2% of bacterial genomes), are present in eukaryotic genomes. This overall patchy distribution across the tree of life suggests specific selective pressures.

Eukaryotes have been subject to numerous bursts of innovation, which gave rise to novel cellular biology (e.g., introns and genome duplications) as well as to original immune mechanisms unrelated to bacteria. For example, VDJ recombination, which gives rise to the B and T cells of mammalian adaptive immunity, originates from co-option of a RAG-like transposable element protein [ 41 ]. Yet, eukaryotes also reused antiphage modules, which play pivotal roles in anti-pathogen defence across domains of life. We therefore ask: what could be the evolutionary forces driving the emergence of ancestral immune modules?

Evolutionary drivers behind ancestral immunity

Conservation of antiphage homologs in eukaryotes could be explained by the existence of common selective pressures to build an efficient immune response, related to the inevitable requirements of functioning pathways (constraints) as well as to the need for constant evolution to face pathogens (opportunities).

Common evolutionary constraints on immunity

Bacteria and eukaryotes face similar constraints related to the implementation of defence systems, which introduce selective pressures likely contributing to the selection of ancestral immunity. First, both bacteria and eukaryotes require specificity in pathogen detection. The response is triggered by specific cues of pathogen or cellular origin that introduce a discontinuity within cellular physiology. This corresponds to a rapid change in the molecules specifically surveyed by immune defence [ 42 , 43 ]. For example, increased cytosolic double-stranded DNA concentration in human cells is detected by the sensor cGAS [ 38 ]. The effector response targeting the pathogen necessitates a similar level of specificity, with the exception of mechanisms of inducible cell death. Second, temporality is important. The immune response must be swiftly triggered, but controlled in time and return to physiological levels. Finally, orthogonality is needed. The cross-talks between immune defence and other cellular pathways (e.g., metabolism and cell division) require tight control to avoid perturbations of nonimmune pathways and prevent unwanted activation of an immune response. For example, upon DNA detection, human cGAS produces a specific second messenger, 2′3′-cGAMP, which signals to STING, but generally not to other proteins. 2′3′-cGAMP is not generated by other, nonimmune enzymatic reactions [ 38 ].

It is likely that such rigid requirements can be fulfilled by only a limited number of modules. Antiphage proteins represent a formidable bucket of solutions from which to draw, because the selective pressures stemming from the aforementioned constraints shaped antiphage systems. Conservation of prokaryotic modules is also possible because bacteria and eukaryotes share a grammar of cellular constituents (e.g., nucleic acids and central metabolites such as NAD+) that can be harnessed and/or targeted for immunity.

Common evolutionary opportunities: The power of tinkering

The presence of an efficient immune response imposes a selective pressure on the pathogen to diversify, thereby constraining host immunity to catch up, resulting in an arms race between pathogen and host (commonly known as the Red Queen Hypothesis [ 4 ]). Across the tree of life, the ability to evolve and adapt is therefore essential for immune defences. In addition to mutation, recombination is a powerful evolutionary force for antiphage systems, which demonstrate a combinatorial organisation of proteins and domains. Various antiviral effectors can pair up with a given viral receptor, generating different “flavours” of the same antiphage system [ 23 ]. Similarly, a given antiphage domain can participate in several antiphage systems. Lamassu displays 10 different effectors, 6 of which participate in other antiphage systems such as CBASS or retrons [ 23 ]. Selective pressures stemming from host–pathogen coevolution thus result in the evolution of antiphage domains that can be swiftly tinkered with to face a given threat.

Another prediction of the Red Queen Hypothesis is that antiphage systems could have been selected for their evolvability (i.e., their capacity to mutate and change). Although such a claim is not backed up by data, it is striking that conserved immune modules use clade-specific biochemistry within the boundaries of a shared mechanism of action. For example, prokaryotic viperins produce several types of modified nucleotides while eukaryotic viperins are limited to either CTP or UTP derivatives [ 12 , 31 ]. Similarly, cGLRs and bacterial cGAS produce a range of cyclic nucleotide signalling molecules, indicating that modules can use diverse biochemistry without losing ancestral functions of specificity and orthogonality [ 18 ]. Highly tinkerable and evolvable modules may have been selected in diverse domains of life, especially in the context of adaptation to eukaryotic-specific pathogens (which comprise a higher number of RNA viruses [ 44 ]).

The aforementioned selective pressures may explain the existence of ancestral immunity. Yet, certain antiphage systems are strikingly absent from the list. Although restriction-modification is the most abundant bacterial defence system, restriction-modification enzymes have never been documented in eukaryotes (apart from an anecdotal occurrence [ 45 ]), and neither has CRISPR-Cas. By contrast, rare systems such as gasdermins, which are encoded by 0.5% of prokaryotic genomes, are conserved in a large fraction of eukaryotes. What could be the rules governing the conservation of a subset of antiphage systems in eukaryotes?

The impact of a transmission bottleneck on the composition of ancestral immunity

The differential conservation of antiphage modules in eukaryotes could be explained by a relative enrichment or loss of specific modules in prokaryotic precursors of eukaryotes, as suggested by Wein and Sorek [ 7 ]. This scenario implies that a limited number of modules were transmitted to the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA), essentially constraining the diversity of modules available for eukaryotic evolution. Eukaryotes presumably originate from an ancestral archaean most closely related to present day Asgard archaea [ 46 ]. Hypothesising that the composition of defence systems in eukaryotic ancestors explains the differential conservation of modules in modern-day eukaryotes implies that modules present in Asgard archaea and eukaryotes should be relatively similar. Analysing hundreds of Asgard genomes reveals that antiviral systems of Asgard archaea resemble those of other archaea and bacteria, with the widespread presence of systems absent in eukaryotes, such as restriction-modification and CRISPR-Cas. Some immune modules present in eukaryotes are indeed prevalent in Asgard archaea, such as prokaryotic Agos and viperins. Genomic and phylogenetic analyses indicate that prokaryotic Agos and viperins proteins were likely present in LECA and vertically inherited [ 29 , 31 , 47 ]. Conversely, ancestral immune modules of bacteria and eukaryotes, such as Detocs/PNP and gasdermins, are absent from archaeal genomes and were likely acquired later during evolution through horizontal gene transfer between bacteria and ancestral eukaryotes [ 29 , 31 , 47 ].

If transmission from LECA could account for the conservation of a subset of immune modules in eukaryotes (e.g., Agos and viperins), such a scenario fails to explain the presence (e.g., PNP-containing proteins and gasdermins) or absence (e.g., restriction-modification and CRISPR-Cas) of a significant subset of modules. The transmission bottleneck linked to the appearance of LECA does not entirely explain the composition of ancestral immunity, especially when considering that ancestral immune modules could have been later acquired by horizontal gene transfer. This suggests that additional pressures exist to explain the (counter-)selection of a given antiphage module in eukaryotes.

Selective pressures driving the composition of ancestral immunity

Immune molecular mechanisms relevant to diverse pathogens.

A conservative hypothesis justifying the existence of ancestral immunity across domains of life would be a continuous selective pressure exerted by a given pathogen. Herpesviruses, which infect eukaryotes as diverse as marine protists and humans, represent an interesting candidate, as multiple human homologs of antiphage modules target herpesviruses [ 24 , 35 ]. NLR-related modules target phages and human herpesviruses, while bacteria and human Lamassu thwart phage and herpes simplex virus 1 infection, respectively. The phage order Caudovirales and eukaryotic herpesviruses are phylogenetically related, and regrouped in the superfamily of Duplodnaviridae , characterised by structural conservation of several viral proteins, including the HK97 fold of the major capsid as well as the portal and terminase proteins [ 48 , 49 ]. Herpes-like pathogens were even suggested to have targeted LECA [ 50 ]. It is tempting to speculate that certain antiphage systems were conserved throughout eukaryotic evolution to respond to the constant pressure of herpes-like viruses.

Another key determinant of the conservation of immune modules may relate to the ability of pathogens to thwart antiviral pressure through mutation. Indeed, the selective pressure exerted by an efficient mechanism of defence pushes for the selection of pathogen variants that evade recognition or antiviral effectors (as per the Red Queen Hypothesis). The ability to mutate while maintaining function depends on the structure and function of viral proteins. For example, polymerases that replicate viral genomes during infection are considered more constrained (i.e., less tolerant to mutation than other proteins). Defence modules targeting constrained viral elements thus provide a selective advantage and may have therefore been conserved. Recent work demonstrated the ability of an NLR-related antiphage system Avs to be triggered by the portal proteins of human herpesviruses in addition to those of phages. Avs recognises portal proteins from diverse phages that have <5% sequence similarity but that have conserved ancestral structures [ 35 ]. Similarly, viperins produce modified nucleotides that interrupt viral genome elongation during replication [ 12 , 32 ]. If modified nucleotides are incorporated by DNA-dependent RNA polymerases from phages, they are similarly used by RNA-dependent RNA polymerases of eukaryotic RNA viruses. The production of modified nucleotides disabling viral genomes appears to represent a broad antiviral strategy that acts against unrelated viral families. Such an efficient molecular mechanism could have been under constant selective pressure to be maintained, even with the evolution of novel viral families.

Cost–benefit trade-offs of antiviral mechanisms

The use of antiviral mechanisms is associated with significant energy costs as well as potential toxicities linked to autoimmunity. For example, in bacteria, CRISPR-Cas systems can mistakenly target the host genome, resulting in cell death [ 51 ]. Patients with Aicardi–Goutières syndrome have elevated levels of inflammation at baseline, with severe cases displaying reduced life expectancy [ 52 ]. The selection or counter-selection of a given mechanism needs to be understood as a trade-off, in which the benefits of protection must outweigh the inherent cost of implementing an active mechanism. Host-specific variations in the cost–benefit balance could explain the differential conservation of antiphage systems. For example, mechanisms may be counter-selected due to their incompatibility with cellular processes unrelated to immunity. In bacteria, CRISPR-Cas systems can compete with DNA repair pathways, particularly non-homologous end joining, in the context of horizontal gene transfer, resulting in counter-selection of the CRISPR-Cas system in specific genetic backgrounds [ 53 ]. The larger size of eukaryotic genomes (10 6 for the bacterial chromosome versus the 10 9 nucleotides of human DNA) increases the probability of “accidental” CRISPR or restriction-modification-mediated restriction, leading to autoimmunity. In eukaryotes, regulation of gene expression relies heavily on DNA methylation, which is also how bacterial genomes avoid being targeted by restriction-modification systems. Use of DNA methylation as a means of gene regulation is thus at odds with its use within a restriction-modification system. Conversely, the existence of host-specific processes can influence the cost–benefit balance. Restriction-modification enzymes and CRISPR-Cas systems not only act as antiphage systems but also as regulators of genetic material obtained through horizontal gene transfer—a key beneficial function. In eukaryotes, horizontal gene transfer is less extensive, reducing the benefits provided by such systems. This could tilt the cost–benefit balance, leading to counter-selection. Another hypothesis that is not mutually exclusive relates to the appearance of the eukaryotic nucleus. Genome replication of jumbo phages occurs within nuclei-like structures that physically shield DNA from restriction-modification and CRISPR-Cas [ 54 , 55 ]. The eukaryotic nucleus may have had a profound impact on the cost–benefit trade-off of restriction-modification and CRISPR-Cas, rendering both systems obsolete.

Putative scenario to explain the evolution of ancestral immunity

Based on the considerations discussed above, we propose a putative evolutionary scenario explaining the emergence of ancestral immunity ( Fig 2A ) as well as the use of ancestral immune modules in the construction of diverse immune systems across the tree of life ( Fig 2B ).

(A) The emergence of ancestral immune modules depends on the selection of immune modules within prokaryotes, subject to selective pressures (step 1). A subset of modules is acquired by eukaryotes through vertical inheritance and horizontal gene transfer (step 2). Modules are selected within a eukaryotic framework (step 3). (B) Acquired immune modules are then utilised (through selection) for the construction of immune pathways, with diversification through tinkering (step 1), and selection of a subset of “tinkered-with” modules (step 2), which are included in and completed by original, nonbacterial immune mechanisms (step 3).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002717.g002

Emergence of ancestral immunity

In the first step , prokaryotic immune modules are selected on the aforementioned constraints (specificity, temporality, and orthogonality), resulting in a diverse set of modules of defence, some of which are clade or species specific ( Fig 2A ). These modules constitute the pan-immunity of prokaryotes. During the second step , a subset of these modules is transmitted to eukaryotes. Module transmission to eukaryotes could have been partly contingent on the types of prokaryotic immune modules present at that time (i.e., a transmission bottleneck during the appearance of LECA). Rather than being singular, we speculate the existence of multiple events of transmission, over a restricted but fairly long period running from early eukaryogenesis to the emergence of complex multicellularity. This hypothesis also implies that certain modules of prokaryotic immunity were never acquired by eukaryotes, with no possibility of ever becoming ancestral immune modules. In the third step , the subset of modules transmitted to eukaryotes is subjected to selection. The emergence of eukaryotic specificities leads to cost–benefit trade-offs that apply to each module, sometimes driving counter-selection and loss (e.g., restriction-modification and CRISPR-Cas). The combination of an acquisition bottleneck (second step) followed by eukaryote-specific selective pressures (third step) likely led to the emergence of a defined set of ancestral immune modules.

From ancestral immune modules to diverse immune systems

In the first step of diversity generation, ancestral immune modules are combined through tinkering mechanisms such as recombination (e.g., NLRs) and mutations (e.g., TIR domains; Fig 2B ). Tinkering can operate at the level of a single gene, which may conglomerate several ancestral immune domains acquired separately, as well as at the pathway level, through the association of genes (e.g., cGAS-like receptor and STING; viperins and CMPK2). In the second step , diverse combinations resulting from tinkering are subject to selection, including from pathogens. An important parameter may be the compatibility of domains or proteins. One may expect, for example, that an enzyme producing a nucleotide-derived second messenger (e.g., a cGAS-like enzyme) may function more efficiently, and be positively selected, when associated with a protein capable of specifically interacting with that sort of second messenger (e.g., STING). Other parameters would be under selection, such as biochemical properties and the ability to be included in (or excluded from) a given pathway. In parallel, novel immune defences, unrelated to ancestral immunity, appear in eukaryotes, resulting in the currently known landscape of immune mechanisms.

Considerations of the putative evolutionary scenario

Following Gould’s famous thought experiment “replaying life’s tape,” we could ask whether rerunning eukaryotic immune evolution would lead to an identical result [ 56 ]. Would ancestral immunity be composed of a different set of modules? Would it exist at all? We propose that ancestral immunity is a product of both contingency and determinism. If ancestral immunity drew from the bucket of prokaryotic modules, it was contingent on the type of modules available for transmission at that time. Selective pressures then determined the conservation or loss, as well as the variations, of ancestral immune modules.

Conclusions and perspectives

Towards a definition of ancestral immunity.

Antiphage modules are not only conserved in eukaryotes, but populate many stages of innate immune pathways. Eukaryotic immunity appears to emerge in part from the selection of diverse antiphage modules. This does not preclude major innovations unrelated to bacteria, but rather suggests that antiphage modules may have been the first evolutionary bricks used in the construction of immunity. We propose the concept of ancestral immunity, which designates the pool of eukaryotic immune modules originating from prokaryotic immune defences.

The benefits of studying ancestral immunity

Identifying the modules of ancestral immunity can illuminate the immunological organisation of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The vast body of literature on mammalian immunology can be exploited to understand antiphage immunity. Gasdermins belong to ancestral immunity and trigger cell demise upon infection. By forming pores in the plasma membrane, human gasdermins also allow the release of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-18 [ 39 ]. Could bacterial gasdermins act in a similar manner, liberating signalling molecules that act on neighbouring bacteria?

Conservation of antiphage systems can be used to discover novel immune components in eukaryotes. A recent proof-of-principle study identified several novel human antiviral effectors belonging to ancestral immunity [ 24 ]. This approach can be applied to any eukaryote of interest and could prove particularly useful to organisms less amenable to experimentation.

Understanding the variations of ancestral immune modules across related species (mutations, gains, or losses) as well as the acquisition of immune actors outside of ancestral immunity may enable a better understanding of the evolution of immunity. Indeed, the study of clade- and potentially species-specific immune defences has recently been coined evo-immuno, by analogy with the evo-devo discipline [ 57 ]. Are the modules of ancestral immunity preferential providers of diversity? Could certain modules of ancestral immunity be replaced by eukaryotic innovation?

Ancestral immune modules are by definition conserved, while performing an immune function that seemingly requires hypervariability to adapt to pathogens in constant evolution. The molecular means by which this paradox is solved have begun to be unravelled [ 31 ].

With the existence of conserved modules comes the evolution of immune blockers by pathogens. Phages have developed myriad proteins dedicated to thwarting antiphage systems, including sponges that sequester cyclic di-nucleotide messengers [ 58 ]. Could different viruses infecting bacteria and humans encode similar anti-defence proteins to block ancestral immune modules? There is structural similarity between viral proteins dedicated to counter-defence, exemplified by Acb1 of phages and ligT-like phosphodiesterases of poxviruses, which target cGAS second messengers [ 59 – 61 ]. Could certain viruses that infect hosts from different kingdoms encode blockers of ancestral immune modules effective across domains of life [ 62 ]? Surveying ancestral immunity from a pathogen perspective may enable the discovery of novel viral strategies targeting immunity.

Future directions

Numerous tasks lie ahead to give substance to the concept of ancestral immunity. Modules belonging to ancestral immunity need to be catalogued, with the help of sequence and structural clustering [ 63 ]. The distribution and evolutionary history of these modules need to be unravelled across the tree of life, as do their molecular mechanisms of action and species-specific variations.

The study of ancestral immunity aims at understanding the general rules of immunology, complementing the limited examples extracted from model organisms. It will improve comprehension of non-model organisms, including species of economic, cultural, and environmental importance. Manipulation of immune activation, including inflammation driven by innate immunity, is a well-documented therapeutic strategy. In patients with cancer, an inflamed microenvironment improves the efficiency of antitumor immunity, while dampening inflammation enables control of certain autoimmune diseases. We foresee that the exploration of ancestral immunity will open new avenues of research in human health.

Acknowledgments

We thank F. Rousset, E. Rocha, A. Lindner, and members of the Molecular Diversity of Microbes and the Innate Immunity in Physiology and Cancer teams for fruitful discussions and critical reading of the manuscript. To promote gender equality and inclusivity in research, we are convinced of the importance of acknowledging gender bias in research article citation. We estimated that, among the 62 references cited in the main text, approximately 34% [ 21 ] have a female first author and approximately 11% [ 7 ] have a female last author. Pictograms used in the figures were obtained from PhyloPic and are all in the public domain.

This publication reflects only the authors’ view and the European Research Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.

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How and when to use an authoritative leadership style

Think this approach is rigid and unforgiving? There’s more to this leadership style than meets the eye.

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The term authoritative leadership sounds scary. It seems rigid and firm — like the very picture of ruling with an iron fist. But if you dig deeper into authoritative leadership, you’ll quickly realize that it’s not quite as unforgiving as the name implies. 

While there are other more flexible and collaborative leadership styles (like servant leadership , coaching leadership , and transformational leadership ) that are often preferable to this one in the modern workplace, this approach still has its merits in specific scenarios.

What is authoritative leadership?

Discover the 7 core leadership styles (and take our quiz to find yours)

Authoritative leadership was first coined by psychologist and author Daniel Goleman in his 2002 book Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence . He describes an authoritative leader (often called an “autocratic” or “visionary” leader) as one who “articulates where a group is going but not how it will get there.”

Put simply, an authoritative leader sets the finish line and equips their team with running shoes. However, team members have the autonomy to decide on their best route to the finish line.

That doesn’t mean the leader steps back and is entirely hands-off. Authoritative leaders offer guidance and encouragement when needed, acting as dedicated coaches and mentors to the people they lead. For that reason, authoritative leaders tend to be: 

• Confident: Team members look to the leader for decisions and direction, so authoritative leaders need to possess self-confidence to inspire that level of trust.
• Decisive: The leader is ultimately the one calling the shots, so they need to make quick and effective decisions and relay that information to their teams.
• Emotionally intelligent: This approach is far more people-focused than you might think – leaders need a high degree of emotional intelligence to empathize with team members and respond to their needs and challenges.
• Focused: Because authoritative leadership hinges on rallying the team around a vision, these leaders need to maintain a clear focus on an objective.
• Inspirational: Effective authoritative leaders do more than dole out directives – they motivate people and elicit genuine enthusiasm for a goal.
• Strategic: Authoritative leaders invite their team along for the ride, but they’re still the ones in the driver’s seat. They need to be strategic-minded to consider long-term goals and the bigger picture.
• Supportive: This leadership style is, perhaps counterintuitively, more supportive than strict, and these leaders provide support and resources and help address challenges without judgment, criticism, or reprimands.

Authoritative vs. authoritarian leadership: What’s the difference?

The authoritative leadership style gets a bad rap — probably because it’s frequently confused with the authoritarian leadership style. While the two terms are similar, the approaches are quite different: 

• Authoritative leadership: The leader sets a goal and encourages the team to work together to achieve it, leading by example and balancing autonomy with support.
• Authoritarian leadership: The leader sets a goal and the exact path to get there, expecting employees to comply with strict directives without voicing concerns or disagreement.

Harvard Business School summarizes it perfectly: “Authoritative leaders say, ‘Come with me;’ authoritarian leaders say, ‘Do what I tell you.’”

Exploring the pros and cons of authoritative leadership style

Understandably, growth-minded and aspiring leaders often find themselves searching for the “ideal” leadership style — that holy-grail approach that will put them in the proverbial leadership hall of fame.

But the truth is that every approach to leadership has its advantages and downsides, and that includes the authoritative style. Here are a few of the most notable benefits and drawbacks to consider.

Pros of authoritative leadership

• Clarity: Because the leader is responsible for setting the objective and vision, there’s little confusion or debate about where the team is headed.
• Speed and efficiency: While collaborative decisions can be good for getting buy-in and engagement, there’s no denying they’re slow. In contrast, authoritative leadership gives the leader all of the decision-making power, which means decisions are swift.
• Predictability: Authoritative leadership offers clear direction and reliable guidance, giving team members a sense of stability and consistency.
• Trust: Leaders need to be in tune with their team and promptly respond to their needs and challenges. That demands a high level of emotional intelligence, which can help foster trust and a more positive work environment.

Cons of authoritative leadership

• Accountability: Because leaders are the ones making the decisions they’re ultimately responsible for the wins and losses on their team. That level of accountability doesn’t come naturally to many leaders.
• Alignment: Authoritative leaders need to be highly aligned with the company’s strategy, which is an area where many leaders struggle. Only 29% of employees say their leader’s vision for the future aligns with the organization’s vision.
• Dependency: Team members sometimes become overly reliant on their leader for direction and decisions, which can get in the way of individual career development and independence.
• Inflexibility: While authoritative leaders are supportive, they don’t welcome team input at the decision-making or goal-setting stage. Employees increasingly want visibility and involvement in company decision-making processes , and many of them won’t appreciate feeling repeatedly shut out.
• Micromanagement: An authoritative leader should set a goal without being prescriptive about how an employee achieves it. But that can be a fine line, and many authoritative leaders creep into overbearing micromanager territory. 

When should you use an authoritative leadership style?

Is situational leadership the best leadership style?

Your team is ever-changing — and a good leader knows to adapt their leadership style based on unique circumstances (there’s even a term for that: situational leadership ). So what are some examples of times when authoritative leadership is your best bet?

• When you’re navigating a big change: In times of uncertainty, team members look to their leaders to reassure them, inspire confidence, and lead the way forward. Authoritative leaders have the self-assuredness, decisiveness, and empathy to earn that trust.
• When you need to make a quick decision: Whether another team is waiting on a direction or the company needs to act quickly, sometimes decision-making needs to happen fast. Authoritative leaders can swiftly and confidently make sound decisions.
• When you’re onboarding a new team member: Starting a new job is nerve-racking, and brand new employees often look to their direct manager to help them get acclimated. An authoritative leadership style provides the clear direction new team members need to move forward while still allowing them space to learn and innovate.
• When your team faces criticism or pushback: Authoritative leadership emphasizes accountability — not just in good times, but in tough times too. An authoritative leader accepts responsibility for the team’s performance and also serves as a fierce advocate and champion when necessary. 

Authoritative leadership conjures a rather harsh connotation, but it’s not as strict or unilateral as the name implies. While no leadership style is perfect, this is an effective and reliable approach for situations when you need to set a clear course – but not necessarily steer the ship. 

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• What does inflation mean?
• What causes inflation? 
• How does inflation affect consumers? 

How to protect your spending power from inflation

What causes inflation.

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• Inflation is an increase in the prices of goods and services over time due to an imbalance between demand and supply.
• Increased costs including wages, government policies, and devaluation of the dollar all play a role in inflation. 
• The government attempts to control inflation by encouraging or discouraging spending and investing.

According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, $20 worth of groceries bought in 1967 would cost about $181 in 2023. That's 805% more for the same bag of groceries. The question is: Why the price increase?

The answer is "inflation." And it can have multiple causes. 

What does inflation mean? 

Inflation is an increase in the price of goods and services over time. Cristian deRitis, deputy chief economist at Moody's Analytics puts it this way: "Fundamentally, inflation comes down to an imbalance between supply and demand for goods and services in the economy."

In other words, the primary cause of inflation is when demand outpaces supply or supply lags behind demand. The value of the product or service rises when demand and supply are not in a state of equilibrium. If many people want a product or service, and the supply remains constant or decreases, the seller can increase the price. If few people want the product or service, its value decreases, along with the price the seller can charge.

Inflation also devalues the dollars used to purchase the product or service. If you have to pay $2 for something that used to cost $1, the dollar is obviously worth less.

Inflation doesn't exist in a vacuum. It applies across sectors or industries and affects the entire economy. The federal government attempts to control inflation by encouraging (or discouraging) spending and investing to maintain what it considers a healthy inflation rate of 2%. The Federal Reserve does its part by raising or lowering base interest rates.

What causes inflation? 

Inflation is typically caused by demand outpacing supply, but the historical reasons for this phenomenon can be further broken down into demand-pull inflation, cost-push inflation, increased money supply, devaluation, rising wages, and monetary and fiscal policies.

"At this point, inflation is mainly being driven by demand," says Callie Cox, US investment analyst at eToro . "Supply chains have healed and goods prices have cooled, but the Fed is laser-focused on services – rent, medical bills, insurance costs, etc."

1. Demand-pull

The most common cause for a rise in prices is when more buyers want a product or service than the seller has available. It's interesting because, unless there's a reason the supply is diminished that affects cost, the price doesn't have to increase. It rises because sellers recognize that buyers are willing to pay more if it's something they really want.

An example of this type of demand-pull inflation would be tickets to the Super Bowl. There are only so many seats available (limited supply). More people want to attend the Super Bowl than the number of available seats (increased demand). Because of this, third-party sellers can charge thousands of dollars for tickets with a face value equal to a fraction of that amount.

2. Cost-push

Sometimes prices rise because costs go up on the supply side of the equation. These increased supply-side cost such as materials, wages, and energy, make the product or service more expensive. Therefore the seller has to charge more to maintain a profit. Depending on the amount of demand, sellers may not always be able to recover all of the increase, but instead reduce their profit and absorb some of the cost themselves.

Cost-push inflation is often affected by changes in the labor market.

"Limitations on the availability of workers have led to wage increases and higher prices," says deRitis. "Deaths and illnesses related to the pandemic reduced the size of the workforce both directly and indirectly." 

3. Increased money supply

Ideally, an increase in the supply of money in the economy lowers interest rates which encourages spending and investment and helps grow gross domestic product (GDP) . However, this process, known as quantitative easing (QE) , initiated by the Federal Reserve, can also lead to demand-pull inflation when the money supply increases faster than economic growth.

This  happened during the COVID-19 pandemic. Governments worldwide, including the US, began massive financial support programs including $1 trillion in cash to Americans. This influx of money in the economy increased demand for goods and services and, for a variety of reasons, businesses could not keep up. The result: inflation and the eventual need for the Federal Reserve to begin cutting back on QE to slow down inflation.

4. Devaluation

Devaluation is a reduction in the value of currency when the exchange rate for that currency goes lower. This makes exports less expensive and more attractive to other countries. This process also makes products from other countries more expensive in the U.S.

Cost-push inflation results because imports are now more expensive which creates an imbalance on the supply (cost) side. Demand-pull inflation, caused by increased demand for domestic products both at home and abroad, can result in more demand than supply. Prices can rise and inflation result either way.

5. Rising wages

Rising wages are a contributor to cost-push inflation. That's because wages are a cost. When workers are paid more, whatever they produce costs more and those costs are passed on to the consumer (buyer).

As with devaluation, there's also a demand-pull inflationary aspect to rising wages. Higher wages put more money in the hands of consumers who spend that money and in doing so increase demand for products and services. Economists also note that if higher wages result in increased productivity, prices may not rise as much or at all. 

6. Monetary and fiscal policies

The Federal Reserve is tasked with maintaining monetary policy in the US.

In periods of high inflation, it attempts to lower the rate through contractionary monetary policy by increasing interest rates, increasing bank reserve requirements, and selling government securities. When the economy is facing or in the midst of a downturn, the Fed initiates expansionary monetary policy by lowering interest rates, decreasing bank reserve requirements, and buying government securities. Failing to maintain balance between these two policies can lead to inflation.

In addition to monetary policy imbalance, certain other government policies can result in cost-push or demand-pull inflation. For example, when the government issues tax subsidies for products (i.e., solar panels), that can increase demand and result in demand-pull inflation. Regulations that increase costs for manufacturers could create cost-push inflation.

Inflation expectations

Economists also point to the potential inflationary effect of unexpected changes in the economy, especially as it relates to the supply of money. This is based on the idea that if everyone expects inflation due to the increase of money in the economy, supply will have an opportunity to increase to match demand. An unexpected influx of cash doesn't allow the supply side to catch up, resulting in inflation.

Expectations of inflation can follow the same path. When people anticipate higher inflation they can bargain for higher wages to help offset the increased cost of living. This can lead to businesses raising prices higher causing what's known as a wage-price spiral . This phenomenon is rare.

How does inflation affect consumers? 

"When prices are rising quickly, many of us consciously – or subconsciously – make different choices in our lives, budgets and portfolios," says Cox. "We revisit our budgets, cut our discretionary spending, and make personal sacrifices to make sure we can afford what we need. These small changes amount to big decisions, like renting instead of buying a house, choosing one job over the other, or moving cities for better opportunities. Suddenly, your life looks dramatically different. Collectively, the economy suffers from a 'paradox of thrift' – a shift toward savings that ultimately drags on growth."

DeRitis points to large differences across socio-economic groups when it comes to the impact of inflation.

"Higher-income households have been more insulated from the effects of inflation, given that most own their homes with long-term, fixed-rate mortgages that are not affected by rate increases. Lower-income households have been much more exposed to inflation, given that they tend to be renters and spend a disproportionate share of their incomes on necessities including housing, utilities, food, and gasoline."

There are a variety of common-sense ways to help mitigate the impact of high inflation. DeRitis suggests the following:

• Reduce discretionary spending.
• Put off major purchases.
• Repair automobiles and other major items to extend their life.
• Consolidate credit cards and high-interest loans.
• If it's an option, reduce housing expenses by living with family or having roommates.
• Find a job closer to where you live to reduce commuting costs.
• Increase income with a new job or a second job.

See Insider's picks for the best online brokers . 

As far as investments are concerned, Cox says: "The most important thing investors can do right now is revisit their 'why.' Understand when and why you need your invested money, and how much risk you can take on to reach that goal."

Cox further advises that you consider investing in sectors that tend to thrive during inflation because they include things people will buy no matter what including food, energy, and medicine.

DeRitis suggests directing long-term savings toward assets that tend to rise in value along with inflation such as real estate, high-quality stocks, or inflation-protected US Treasury bonds (TIPS).

The keys to financial survival during inflationary times, then, are to reduce spending and expenses, increase income if possible, and put your money in inflation-friendly investments.

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The Photographs That Made Trump an Incarnation of Defiance

In video footage, everything was pandemonium. It was still images that defined the attack and its aftermath.

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By Jason Farago

If we had seen the attack on former President Donald J. Trump only through television footage, it would have appeared shocking, but also chaotic and muddled. The candidate dives to the rostrum after an assassin’s bullet grazes his ear. Secret Service agents jump in. He gets back on his feet, gestures to the crowd and is rushed out to cheers.

The still images of the assassination attempt — by Doug Mills of The New York Times , and by photographers from The Associated Press and Reuters — tell another story. Blood running from Mr. Trump’s ear to his lips testifies to how close the former president had come to death. His raised fist offers a highly legible refusal to capitulate. To the television cameras, everything was pandemonium. In the lens of the still camera, the horror of the attack was translated into embodiments of authority, defiance and near martyrdom.

I understand the tendency to hunt for visual analogies when extraordinary events like this take place. The American flag billowing behind Mr. Trump’s bloodied face in some of the photos may superficially recall a Romantic tradition of bloodied national heroes, real or allegorical. A reverse image bot without much horse power could easily match them to Eugène Delacroix’s “Liberty Leading the People” (1830), in which a woman embodying France raises a flag in her right arm, or John Singleton Copley’s “Death of Major Peirson” (1782—84), a history painting of a victorious general dying beneath the British flag. The triangular formation of Secret Service agents seems to have put quite a few people in mind of the photo of the flag being raised at Iwo Jima.

People like these visual analogues because they offer a pedigree to news imagery. They promise to assign distinction to outliers in our perpetual image stream, and to inscribe the past in the present. But as a moral matter, I have always bridled against the temptation to treat images of suffering ( two people are dead, and Mr. Trump and two others are injured ) as objects of aesthetic judgment. And analogies like these underestimate a larger change in how we encounter images today, where even the most “iconic” picture is something mutable and unfixed.

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What is 'Hillbilly Elegy'? Everything to know about VP candidate JD Vance's book

Former President Donald Trump selected Ohio Sen. J.D. Vance on Monday to be his 2024 vice-presidential running mate.

Vance, who grew up in Jackson, Kentucky, and Middletown, Ohio, skyrocketed to fame as the author of “Hillbilly Elegy.” The book later turned into a movie of the same name that was released in 2020.

Here's what to know about "Hillbilly Elegy."

Is JD Vance's 'Hillbilly Elegy' based on a true story? What is it about?

Yes. Vance described a childhood consumed by poverty and abuse in "Hillbilly Elegy," his  best-selling 2016 memoir . Vance's mother struggled with drug addiction, so he spent many of his formative years with his grandmother – known to him as Mamaw. The book, which has 4.3/5 stars out of over 96,000 ratings on Amazon, also touches on his journey to a Yale Law School degree that opened doors for him in Silicon Valley.

"Hillbilly Elegy" later turned into a  Netflix feature film of the same name.

What to know about 'Hillbilly Elegy,' the movie

The movie inspired by Vance's book released to Netflix in 2020. Directed by Ron Howard, it stars Amy Adams and Glenn Close. Vance's character is played by Gabriel Basso. Owen Asztalos also plays the younger version of him.

The IMDB description says, "An urgent phone call pulls a Yale Law student back to his Ohio hometown , where he reflects on three generations of family history and his own future."

The film, which is rated R, received a 6.7/10 on IMDB and 25% on Rotten Tomatoes .

Where was 'Hillbilly Elegy' filmed?

According to Decider , "Hillbilly Elegy" was partially filmed in Vance's hometown of Middletown, Ohio, as well as Atlanta and Clayton, Georgia.

Who is JD Vance's mother?

Vance's parents are Donald Bowman and Bev Vance. The two divorced when he was a toddler, according to Politico . In the movie, Bev Vance's character is played by Amy Adams.

Where can I watch 'Hillbilly Elegy'

The film is available to stream on Netflix.

Where is Middletown, Ohio?

Middletown is located in Ohio's Butler and Warren counties, the southwest portion of the state. It's part of the Greater Cincinnati area.

Who is JD Vance? Vice presidential candidate has multiple ties to Columbus

'Hillbilly Elegy' trailer