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• Mar 6, 2024
• 11 min read

How to Become a Researcher (Duties, Salary and Steps)

You could uncover the next big thing in our lives.

Mike Dalley

HR and Learning & Development Expert

Reviewed by Chris Leitch

Everything important in our day-to-day life started as a groundbreaking piece of research.

Researchers make ideas come to life, and all of the things that we take for granted wouldn’t be here without research. Therefore, being a researcher offers a rewarding, challenging and varied career path .

This article takes you through the details of being a researcher, including what this exciting role entails, what the working environment and salary are like and, critically, what you can do to get started in the role.

What is a researcher?

A researcher collects data and undertakes investigations into a particular subject , publishing their findings. The purpose of this is to uncover new knowledge or theories. Researchers typically specialize in a particular field and follow rigorous methodologies in order to ensure their research is credible.

What are the different types of researchers?

There are many ways to categorize researchers, such as by their field, expertise or methodologies. Here are six basic types of researchers:

• Applied researchers use existing scientific knowledge to solve problems . They use this knowledge to develop new technologies or methodologies.
• Clinical researchers conduct research related to medical treatments or diseases. They often work in institutions like hospitals or pharmaceutical companies.
• Corporate researchers collect data related to business environments, with the aim to use this to benefit organizations.
• Market researchers gather data related to consumer preferences or an organization’s competitors.
• Social researchers investigate human behavior and the factors influencing this. Social research relates to fields like psychology , anthropology and economics.
• Policy researchers work with companies and governments to investigate the impact of policies, regulations or programs.

What does a researcher do?

Researcher work is quite varied. It begins with reviewing existing research and literature and formulating research questions . Researchers also have to design studies and protocols for their research, and diligently and thoroughly collect data.

Once the data is collected, researchers have to critically analyze their findings and communicate them . To ensure the research is reliable, researchers must embrace peer review , where their research is evaluated by other researchers in the same field, and draw conclusions accordingly. The entirety of this process must be bound by ethical considerations, as researchers have a duty to ensure their work is truthful, integral and accurate.

Researchers also undertake supportive duties, such as applying for grants and funding, and investigating new areas to research.

What is their work environment?

Researchers’ work environment depends greatly on the type of research they are doing and their field. The typical researcher environment can, therefore, vary considerably but might include time in laboratories, academic institutions, office spaces and IT workshops. There might also be the need to undergo onsite fieldwork or attend conferences and workshops.

Researchers work in collaborative environments, and teamwork is common. That said, they also need to undertake plenty of solo work that requires concentration and quiet. Consequently, they need to be happy in a variety of different work settings.

How many hours do they work?

The hours researchers work vary just as much as their working environment. Freelance or contract researchers might work atypical hours, whereas academic or corporate researchers might work more standard hours, such as a 40-hour working week.

Field researchers might have to work longer hours at times in order to collect data. This also might involve travel time.

All researchers might have to work long hours when deadlines are due, or when projects are time-sensitive. Finally, because of the idiosyncratic nature of research work, all researchers might have their favorite personal working style and work their hours in preferred patterns.

How much do they earn?

Owing to the nature of the role, researcher salaries can vary considerably. Based on current market data , the average salary is $82,276 per year .

One of the largest variables in researcher salaries is the field you decide to go into. Academic researchers are typically paid towards the lower end of the scale, as are government researchers. Industry or corporate researchers are paid a lot more, with computer and information research roles paying a median annual salary of over $130,000.

Researcher salaries can also vary based on the job level. Apprentices or research assistants have lower salaries, whereas research scientist or professor-level roles often pay over $100,000. Pay scales are connected to academic reputation, industry credentials, and the industry you work in. This also means that as your career in research progresses, you can expect to take home extremely good paychecks.

What is the job market like for researchers?

Some research roles can be extremely competitive, with tenure-track roles in academic research being highly in demand, as are positions in consulting firms. The labor market for corporate research and governmental research roles can also be very strong, but research is heavily impacted by economic conditions, and roles can be cut in times of recession.

In general, research roles are highly sought-after , and this means competition for them is fierce. This means that you need to have a strong network, undergo continuous professional development, work on your research portfolio, and ensure your résumé and other supporting documentation are up to date.

What are the entry requirements?

Starting your career as a researcher requires plenty of preparation. Here’s what you need to focus on in terms of education, skills and knowledge, and licensing and certification.

Higher education is essential to become a researcher; what degree you choose might depend on what field of research you are interested in. A bachelor’s degree will give you foundational knowledge , whereas a master’s or PhD offers more specialized knowledge and can lead to more career opportunities later in your career journey.

Skills and knowledge

Entry-level researchers need a rich mix of skills and knowledge to be able to fulfil their job duties . Skills to develop include analytical skills , critical thinking ability and solving problems, with other useful ones being IT and presentation skills . Knowledge of research methodologies and rationale, as well as database management, is very useful.

Licensing and certification

Licensing and certification requirements for researchers vary , depending on the field you are planning to go into. Academic credentials, as outlined above, are important, but being a member of relevant professional associations is also highly advised.

Some sensitive areas of research might require you to have specialist credentials, such as certification in Good Clinical Practice if you’re planning to undertake medical research.

Do you have what it takes?

Being a researcher is a labor of love. If your values, passions and talent are related to traits like curiosity, attention to detail, discovering more about the world we live in, and rigorous attention to detail, then being a researcher is the perfect job for you. You also have to have a lot of patience, honesty when it comes to reporting unwelcome results, and resilience.

If you’re not sure what kind of career your skills, interests and passions might lead to, then consider taking CareerHunter’s six-stage assessment . These tests have been developed by psychologists and assess your skills and interests in order to provide you with best-fit careers that you can really thrive in.

How to become a researcher

A lot of preparation is needed to become a researcher. If, after reading this far, you still feel that becoming a researcher is the perfect job for you, then read on to discover how you can make this career dream a reality.

Step 1: Choose your field

Try to choose your research field as soon as you can. This is important, because it might provide you with direction for your higher education. There are so many different research fields to choose from — for example: social sciences, humanities, business, healthcare, engineering , or simply focusing on research theory or methodologies.

It’s important to choose a field that you have a strong interest or passion in. Also, consider where your talents and skills lie, and let this guide your decision too.

Step 2: Get qualified

As we’ve covered already, education is an important first step to becoming a researcher.

Common degrees to focus on can be the sciences (biology, chemistry or physics), computer science , mathematics, or statistics . Alternatively, if you have decided on your chosen research field, then consider obtaining higher education that relates to this.

Being a researcher is a competitive career: good grades in leading institutions will be required if you want to work as a researcher in prestigious organizations.

Step 3: Develop your research skills

Whether it’s part of your higher education or simply learning in your own time, developing research skills such as new methodologies, quantitative and qualitative methods , strategic analysis, or data analytics will keep you professionally competitive.

Additionally, it’s useful to gain experience in using research tools and software. These can include statistics software like SPSS, as well as programming languages like Java and Python. Understanding data visualization and presentation tools can also be hugely helpful.

Step 4: Gain research experience

A great way to start your career as a researcher is to undertake undergraduate research. This could be your own independent research project but is most commonly achieved through research internships or assistantships . With these experiences, you can collaborate with academic leaders, mentors or established researchers on their projects, and learn from their experience and expertise as well.

Another way to gain experience is through volunteering in research-related roles in academic institutions, laboratories or other similar environments.

Step 5: Network with peers

Networking with fellow research professionals enables you to exchange ideas, resources and expertise . Your network might be able to support you in finding research positions as your career progresses.

Grow your network by attending conferences and seminars, and by leveraging your work experience. You can also grow your network by reaching out to researchers on LinkedIn, and by publishing your own research papers as your experience grows.

Step 6: Present and publish your work

Presenting your work and publishing your findings establishes and grows your credibility as a researcher. You can present your research at conferences or even online via websites like YouTube.

Being published or listed as a collaborator on research papers can impact your career hugely , and being featured on important or large-scale research works can truly establish you as a researcher and lead to larger projects or more funding.

Step 7: Develop your résumé

Ensure that your résumé links to your portfolio of published works , as well as your presentations. It should showcase to potential employers and academic institutions what you have done, and what you’re capable of doing.

Ensure your résumé also references your research skills in a way that relates to the reader, and that it can be parsed effectively in applicant tracking systems .

Step 8: Seek funding

Research requires time and money. By applying for research grants, fellowships, scholarships and projects, you’ll grow your experience and leverage your credibility . Many of these opportunities are competitive, and being able to showcase what you can achieve via your published work, portfolio or résumé is essential.

Applying for funding is a skill in itself, as researchers need to be able to write compelling and thorough applications. You’ll also need to use negotiating and influencing skills in order to secure the funding and get your projects off the ground.

Step 9: Apply for research jobs

Whereas being a researcher often means that you’re working on independent projects, freelancing, or affiliated with an academic institution rather than being employed by one, there are plenty of research jobs out there — and lots of companies have their own in-house research teams.

If you apply for these roles, ensure that your résumé is up to date and that you practice your interviewing skills for them. Research jobs are in demand, and being able to showcase what you do is essential for success.

Step 10: Never stop discovering

Being a successful researcher isn’t just about continuous learning; it’s about endless discovery as well. The best researchers stay curious about their field , exploring new research questions, learning and growing from failure, and asking new questions.

Researchers are passionate about discovery and believe that learning new things and overcoming challenges makes the world a better place. Enthusiastically discovering new things will also ensure that your career as a researcher keeps growing. You’ll also develop resilience and persistence, which are powerful skills to have.

Final thoughts

Being a researcher requires a lot of skills and knowledge, as well as you taking time to figure out exactly what kind of research you want to get involved with. The job is complex and detailed, and can be as frustrating as it can be rewarding.

Becoming a leading researcher requires a lot of career preparation, and hopefully this article can point you in the right direction if you feel this is the perfect job for you. Once you get started, choose your research projects carefully, and who knows? You could be the researcher that uncovers the next big thing in our lives!

Are you thinking about becoming a researcher, or want to share your experiences? Let us know in the comments section below.

Career Exploration

How To Become A Research Scientist: What To Know

Published: Feb 29, 2024, 1:40pm

Research is at the center of everything we know and discover, whether it’s food science, engineering, wildlife or the climate. Behind these discoveries, a research scientist conducts experiments, collects data, and shares their findings with the world.

Research and development scientist, or R&D scientist, is a broad career term that encompasses numerous types of scientists, from geologists to historians. Still, every research scientist has the same goal of furthering their field through experimentation and data analysis.

Browse this guide to discover how to become a research scientist and learn about this role, responsibilities and career outlook.

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What Does a Research Scientist Do?

Research scientists design and conduct research projects and experiments to collect and interpret relevant data. Many research scientists work in laboratory settings for universities, private businesses or government agencies.

These professionals are key players in many industries, from healthcare to marine biology . For instance, a chemist may test various materials for future upgrades to a medical device, while a wildlife research scientist might conduct long-term studies on a species’s breeding patterns.

The typical duties of a research scientist, regardless of their industry and position, include:

• Identifying research needs
• Collaborating with other professionals in a project
• Conducting research and experiments
• Writing laboratory reports
• Writing grant proposals
• Analyzing data
• Presenting research to appropriate audiences
• Developing research-related plans or projects

Research scientists may face challenges throughout their careers, like securing research funding or staying updated with policy changes and technologies. Additionally, to become involved in high-level research projects, research scientists usually need a doctoral degree, requiring substantial time and financial commitment.

How To Become a Research Scientist

The path to becoming a research scientist depends on your desired type of work.

For example, if you plan to become a research scientist for a hospital’s oncology department, you’ll likely need a doctoral degree and postdoctoral research experience. However, a product development researcher may only need a bachelor’s or master’s degree.

The following steps outline the general path needed for many research scientist positions.

Degree Finder

Earn a bachelor’s degree.

Research scientists can start by pursuing a bachelor’s degree in a field relevant to the research they want to conduct. For instance, an undergraduate degree in natural resources is helpful to become a wildlife biologist, while a prospective forensic scientist can pursue a degree in forensics.

If you’re undecided about your post-graduate goals, you can pursue a general major like chemistry, biology or physics before choosing a more field-specific master’s or doctoral degree.

Complete a Master’s Degree

Many higher-level research jobs require a master’s degree in a relevant field. Pursuing a master’s degree lets you gain work experience before beginning a doctorate, sets you apart from other doctoral candidates and qualifies you for advanced research positions.

However, you can skip a master’s degree and enter a doctoral program. Many doctoral programs only require a bachelor’s degree for admission, so you could save time and money by choosing that route rather than earning a master’s.

Get a Doctoral Degree

Doctorates require students to hone their research skills while mastering their field of interest, making these degrees the gold standard for research scientists.

A doctorate can take four to six years to complete. Research scientists should opt for the most relevant doctorate for their career path, like clinical research, bioscience or developmental science.

Pursue a Research Fellowship

Some jobs for research scientists require candidates to have experience in their field, making a research fellowship beneficial. In a research fellowship, students execute research projects under the mentorship of an industry expert, often a researcher within the student’s college or university.

Students can sometimes complete a fellowship while pursuing their doctoral degree, but other fellowships are only available to doctoral graduates.

Research Scientist Salary and Job Outlook

Payscale reports the average research scientist earns about $87,800 per year as of February 2024. However, research scientist salaries can vary significantly depending on the field and the scientist’s experience level.

For example, Payscale reports that entry-level research scientists earn about $84,000 annually, but those with 20 or more years of experience average approximately $106,000 as of February 2024.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports salary data for several types of research scientist careers. For example, a geoscientist earns a median wage of about $87,000, while the median wage of a physicist is around $139,000 as of May 2022.

As salaries vary based on research science positions, so does demand. To illustrate, the BLS projects the need for chemists and materials scientists to grow by 6% from 2022 to 2032 but projects medical scientist jobs to increase by 10% in the same timeframe. Both projections demonstrate above-average career growth, however.

Research Scientist Specializations

A research scientist can work in many industries, so it’s crucial to understand your options before beginning your studies. Pinpointing a few areas of interest can help you find the right educational path for your future career.

Research scientists can specialize in life, physical or earth sciences.

Life science researchers like botanists, biologists and geneticists study living things and their environments. Physical research scientists, like chemists and physicists, explore non-living things and their interactions with an environment. Earth science researchers like meteorologists and geologists study Earth and its features.

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Becoming a Research Scientist

What degree does a research scientist need.

Research scientist education requirements vary by specialization, but entry-level research positions require at least a bachelor’s degree in a relevant field. Some employers prefer a master’s or doctoral degree, as advanced degrees demonstrate specialized knowledge and research experience.

How do I start a career in scientific research?

Research scientists need at least a bachelor’s degree. Many graduates pursue a master’s or doctoral degree while gaining experience with an entry-level position, internship or fellowship.

Does being a research scientist pay well?

Research scientist careers generally pay well; some specializations pay more than others. For example, the BLS reports a median salary of about $67,000 for zoologists and wildlife biologists as of May 2022, but physicists and astronomers earn just over $139,000 annually.

How many years does it take to become a research scientist?

It can take up to 10 years to become a doctorate-prepared research scientist, plus another one to five years to complete a postdoctoral fellowship. Entry-level research scientist roles may only require a four-year bachelor’s degree or a master’s degree, which takes one to two years.

Do you need a Ph.D. to be a research scientist?

No, not all research scientists need a Ph.D. Entry-level roles like forensic scientist technicians may only need a bachelor’s degree, and sociologists and economists usually need a master’s. Some research scientist roles, like physicists and medical scientists, require a doctoral degree.

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As a self-proclaimed lifelong learner and former educator, Amy Boyington is passionate about researching and advocating for learners of all ages. For over a decade, Amy has specialized in writing parenting and higher education content that simplifies the process of comparing schools, programs and tuition rates for prospective students and their families. Her work has been featured on several online publications, including Online MBA, Reader’s Digest and BestColleges.

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Science, health, and public trust.

September 8, 2021

Explaining How Research Works

We’ve heard “follow the science” a lot during the pandemic. But it seems science has taken us on a long and winding road filled with twists and turns, even changing directions at times. That’s led some people to feel they can’t trust science. But when what we know changes, it often means science is working.

Explaining the scientific process may be one way that science communicators can help maintain public trust in science. Placing research in the bigger context of its field and where it fits into the scientific process can help people better understand and interpret new findings as they emerge. A single study usually uncovers only a piece of a larger puzzle.

Questions about how the world works are often investigated on many different levels. For example, scientists can look at the different atoms in a molecule, cells in a tissue, or how different tissues or systems affect each other. Researchers often must choose one or a finite number of ways to investigate a question. It can take many different studies using different approaches to start piecing the whole picture together.

Sometimes it might seem like research results contradict each other. But often, studies are just looking at different aspects of the same problem. Researchers can also investigate a question using different techniques or timeframes. That may lead them to arrive at different conclusions from the same data.

Using the data available at the time of their study, scientists develop different explanations, or models. New information may mean that a novel model needs to be developed to account for it. The models that prevail are those that can withstand the test of time and incorporate new information. Science is a constantly evolving and self-correcting process.

Scientists gain more confidence about a model through the scientific process. They replicate each other’s work. They present at conferences. And papers undergo peer review, in which experts in the field review the work before it can be published in scientific journals. This helps ensure that the study is up to current scientific standards and maintains a level of integrity. Peer reviewers may find problems with the experiments or think different experiments are needed to justify the conclusions. They might even offer new ways to interpret the data.

It’s important for science communicators to consider which stage a study is at in the scientific process when deciding whether to cover it. Some studies are posted on preprint servers for other scientists to start weighing in on and haven’t yet been fully vetted. Results that haven't yet been subjected to scientific scrutiny should be reported on with care and context to avoid confusion or frustration from readers.

We’ve developed a one-page guide, "How Research Works: Understanding the Process of Science" to help communicators put the process of science into perspective. We hope it can serve as a useful resource to help explain why science changes—and why it’s important to expect that change. Please take a look and share your thoughts with us by sending an email to  [email protected].

Below are some additional resources:

• Discoveries in Basic Science: A Perfectly Imperfect Process
• When Clinical Research Is in the News
• What is Basic Science and Why is it Important?
• ​ What is a Research Organism?
• What Are Clinical Trials and Studies?
• Basic Research – Digital Media Kit
• Decoding Science: How Does Science Know What It Knows? (NAS)
• Can Science Help People Make Decisions ? (NAS)

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What is Research? Definition, Types, Methods and Process

By Nick Jain

Published on: July 25, 2023

Table of Contents

Types of Research Methods

Research process: how to conduct research, top 10 best practices for conducting research in 2023, what is research.

Research is defined as a meticulous and systematic inquiry process designed to explore and unravel specific subjects or issues with precision. This methodical approach encompasses the thorough collection, rigorous analysis, and insightful interpretation of information, aiming to delve deep into the nuances of a chosen field of study. By adhering to established research methodologies, investigators can draw meaningful conclusions, fostering a profound understanding that contributes significantly to the existing knowledge base.

This dedication to systematic inquiry serves as the bedrock of progress, steering advancements across sciences, technology, social sciences, and diverse disciplines. Through the dissemination of meticulously gathered insights, scholars not only inspire collaboration and innovation but also catalyze positive societal change.

In the pursuit of knowledge, researchers embark on a journey of discovery, seeking to unravel the complexities of the world around us. By formulating clear research questions, researchers set the course for their investigations, carefully crafting methodologies to gather relevant data. Whether employing quantitative surveys or qualitative interviews, data collection lies at the heart of every research endeavor. Once the data is collected, researchers meticulously analyze it, employing statistical tools or thematic analysis to identify patterns and draw meaningful insights. These insights, often supported by empirical evidence, contribute to the collective pool of knowledge, enriching our understanding of various phenomena and guiding decision-making processes across diverse fields. Through research, we continually refine our understanding of the universe, laying the foundation for innovation and progress that shape the future.

Research embodies the spirit of curiosity and the pursuit of truth. Here are the key characteristics of research:

• Systematic Approach: Research follows a well-structured and organized approach, with clearly defined steps and methodologies. It is conducted in a systematic manner to ensure that data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted in a logical and coherent way.
• Objective and Unbiased: Research is objective and strives to be free from bias or personal opinions. Researchers aim to gather data and draw conclusions based on evidence rather than preconceived notions or beliefs.
• Empirical Evidence: Research relies on empirical evidence obtained through observations, experiments, surveys, or other data collection methods. This evidence serves as the foundation for drawing conclusions and making informed decisions.
• Clear Research Question or Problem: Every research study begins with a specific research question or problem that the researcher aims to address. This question provides focus and direction to the entire research process.
• Replicability: Good research should be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be able to conduct a similar study and obtain similar results when following the same methods.
• Transparency and Ethics: Research should be conducted with transparency, and researchers should adhere to ethical guidelines and principles. This includes obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring confidentiality, and avoiding any harm to participants or the environment.
• Generalizability: Researchers often aim for their findings to be generalizable to a broader population or context. This means that the results of the study can be applied beyond the specific sample or situation studied.
• Logical and Critical Thinking: Research involves critical thinking to analyze and interpret data, identify patterns, and draw meaningful conclusions. Logical reasoning is essential in formulating hypotheses and designing the study.
• Contribution to Knowledge: The primary purpose of research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in a particular field. Researchers aim to expand understanding, challenge existing theories, or propose new ideas.
• Peer Review and Publication: Research findings are typically subject to peer review by experts in the field before being published in academic journals or presented at conferences. This process ensures the quality and validity of the research.
• Iterative Process: Research is often an iterative process, with findings from one study leading to new questions and further research. It is a continuous cycle of discovery and refinement.
• Practical Application: While some research is theoretical in nature, much of it aims to have practical applications and real-world implications. It can inform policy decisions, improve practices, or address societal challenges.

These key characteristics collectively define research as a rigorous and valuable endeavor that drives progress, knowledge, and innovation in various disciplines.

Research methods refer to the specific approaches and techniques used to collect and analyze data in a research study. There are various types of research methods, and researchers often choose the most appropriate method based on their research question, the nature of the data they want to collect, and the resources available to them. Some common types of research methods include:

1. Quantitative Research: Quantitative research methods focus on collecting and analyzing quantifiable data to draw conclusions. The key methods for conducting quantitative research are:

Surveys- Conducting structured questionnaires or interviews with a large number of participants to gather numerical data.

Experiments-Manipulating variables in a controlled environment to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Observational Studies- Systematically observing and recording behaviors or phenomena without intervention.

Secondary Data Analysis- Analyzing existing datasets and records to draw new insights or conclusions.

2. Qualitative Research: Qualitative research employs a range of information-gathering methods that are non-numerical, and are instead intellectual in order to provide in-depth insights into the research topic. The key methods are:

Interviews- Conducting in-depth, semi-structured, or unstructured interviews to gain a deeper understanding of participants’ perspectives.

Focus Groups- Group discussions with selected participants to explore their attitudes, beliefs, and experiences on a specific topic.

Ethnography- Immersing in a particular culture or community to observe and understand their behaviors, customs, and beliefs.

Case Studies- In-depth examination of a single individual, group, organization, or event to gain comprehensive insights.

3. Mixed-Methods Research: Combining both quantitative and qualitative research methods in a single study to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research question.

4. Cross-Sectional Studies: Gathering data from a sample of a population at a specific point in time to understand relationships or differences between variables.

5. Longitudinal Studies: Following a group of participants over an extended period to examine changes and developments over time.

6. Action Research: Collaboratively working with stakeholders to identify and implement solutions to practical problems in real-world settings.

7. Case-Control Studies: Comparing individuals with a particular outcome (cases) to those without the outcome (controls) to identify potential causes or risk factors.

8. Descriptive Research: Describing and summarizing characteristics, behaviors, or patterns without manipulating variables.

9. Correlational Research: Examining the relationship between two or more variables without inferring causation.

10. Grounded Theory: An approach to developing theory based on systematically gathering and analyzing data, allowing the theory to emerge from the data.

11. Surveys and Questionnaires: Administering structured sets of questions to a sample population to gather specific information.

12. Meta-Analysis: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to draw more robust conclusions.

Researchers often choose a research method or a combination of methods that best aligns with their research objectives, resources, and the nature of the data they aim to collect. Each research method has its strengths and limitations, and the choice of method can significantly impact the findings and conclusions of a study.

Learn more: What is Research Design?

Conducting research involves a systematic and organized process that follows specific steps to ensure the collection of reliable and meaningful data. The research process typically consists of the following steps:

Step 1. Identify the Research Topic

Choose a research topic that interests you and aligns with your expertise and resources. Develop clear and focused research questions that you want to answer through your study.

Step 2. Review Existing Research

Conduct a thorough literature review to identify what research has already been done on your chosen topic. This will help you understand the current state of knowledge, identify gaps in the literature, and refine your research questions.

Step 3. Design the Research Methodology

Determine the appropriate research methodology that suits your research questions. Decide whether your study will be qualitative , quantitative , or a mix of both (mixed methods). Also, choose the data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, etc.

Step 4. Select the Sample and Participants

If your study involves human participants, decide on the sample size and selection criteria. Obtain ethical approval, if required, and ensure that participants’ rights and privacy are protected throughout the research process.

Step 5. Information Collection

Collect information and data based on your chosen research methodology. Qualitative research has more intellectual information, while quantitative research results are more data-oriented. Ensure that your data collection process is standardized and consistent to maintain the validity of the results.

Step 6. Data Analysis

Analyze the data you have collected using appropriate statistical or qualitative research methods . The type of analysis will depend on the nature of your data and research questions.

Step 7. Interpretation of Results

Interpret the findings of your data analysis. Relate the results to your research questions and consider how they contribute to the existing knowledge in the field.

Step 8. Draw Conclusions

Based on your interpretation of the results, draw meaningful conclusions that answer your research questions. Discuss the implications of your findings and how they align with the existing literature.

Step 9. Discuss Limitations

Acknowledge and discuss any limitations of your study. Addressing limitations demonstrates the validity and reliability of your research.

Step 10. Make Recommendations

If applicable, provide recommendations based on your research findings. These recommendations can be for future research, policy changes, or practical applications.

Step 11. Write the Research Report

Prepare a comprehensive research report detailing all aspects of your study, including the introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.

Step 12. Peer Review and Revision

If you intend to publish your research, submit your report to peer-reviewed journals. Revise your research report based on the feedback received from reviewers.

Make sure to share your research findings with the broader community through conferences, seminars, or other appropriate channels, this will help contribute to the collective knowledge in your field of study.

Remember that conducting research is a dynamic process, and you may need to revisit and refine various steps as you progress. Good research requires attention to detail, critical thinking, and adherence to ethical principles to ensure the quality and validity of the study.

Learn more: What is Primary Market Research?

Best practices for conducting research remain rooted in the principles of rigor, transparency, and ethical considerations. Here are the essential best practices to follow when conducting research in 2023:

1. Research Design and Methodology

• Carefully select and justify the research design and methodology that aligns with your research questions and objectives.
• Ensure that the chosen methods are appropriate for the data you intend to collect and the type of analysis you plan to perform.
• Clearly document the research design and methodology to enhance the reproducibility and transparency of your study.

2. Ethical Considerations

• Obtain approval from relevant research ethics committees or institutional review boards, especially when involving human participants or sensitive data.
• Prioritize the protection of participants’ rights, privacy, and confidentiality throughout the research process.
• Provide informed consent to participants, ensuring they understand the study’s purpose, risks, and benefits.

3. Data Collection

• Ensure the reliability and validity of data collection instruments, such as surveys or interview protocols.
• Conduct pilot studies or pretests to identify and address any potential issues with data collection procedures.

4. Data Management and Analysis

• Implement robust data management practices to maintain the integrity and security of research data.
• Transparently document data analysis procedures, including software and statistical methods used.
• Use appropriate statistical techniques to analyze the data and avoid data manipulation or cherry-picking results.

5. Transparency and Open Science

• Embrace open science practices, such as pre-registration of research protocols and sharing data and code openly whenever possible.
• Clearly report all aspects of your research, including methods, results, and limitations, to enhance the reproducibility of your study.

6. Bias and Confounders

• Be aware of potential biases in the research process and take steps to minimize them.
• Consider and address potential confounding variables that could affect the validity of your results.

7. Peer Review

• Seek peer review from experts in your field before publishing or presenting your research findings.
• Be receptive to feedback and address any concerns raised by reviewers to improve the quality of your study.

8. Replicability and Generalizability

• Strive to make your research findings replicable, allowing other researchers to validate your results independently.
• Clearly state the limitations of your study and the extent to which the findings can be generalized to other populations or contexts.

9. Acknowledging Funding and Conflicts of Interest

• Disclose any funding sources and potential conflicts of interest that may influence your research or its outcomes.

10. Dissemination and Communication

• Effectively communicate your research findings to both academic and non-academic audiences using clear and accessible language.
• Share your research through reputable and open-access platforms to maximize its impact and reach.

By adhering to these best practices, researchers can ensure the integrity and value of their work, contributing to the advancement of knowledge and promoting trust in the research community.

Learn more: What is Consumer Research?

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How to Conduct Responsible Research: A Guide for Graduate Students

Alison l. antes.

1 Department of Medicine, Division of General Medical Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, 314-362-6006

Leonard B. Maggi, Jr.

2 Department of Medicine, Division of Molecular Oncology, Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, 314-362-4102

Researchers must conduct research responsibly for it to have an impact and to safeguard trust in science. Essential responsibilities of researchers include using rigorous, reproducible research methods, reporting findings in a trustworthy manner, and giving the researchers who contributed appropriate authorship credit. This “how-to” guide covers strategies and practices for doing reproducible research and being a responsible author. The article also covers how to utilize decision-making strategies when uncertain about the best way to proceed in a challenging situation. The advice focuses especially on graduate students but is appropriate for undergraduates and experienced researchers. The article begins with an overview of the responsible conduct of research, research misconduct, and ethical behavior in the scientific workplace. The takeaway message is that responsible conduct of research requires a thoughtful approach to doing research to ensure trustworthy results and conclusions and that researchers receive fair credit.

INTRODUCTION

Doing research is stimulating and fulfilling work. Scientists make discoveries to build knowledge and solve problems, and they work with other dedicated researchers. Research is a highly complex activity, so it takes years for beginning researchers to learn everything they need to know to do science well. Part of this large body of knowledge is learning how to do research responsibly. Our purpose in this article is to provide graduate students a guide for how to perform responsible research. Our advice is also relevant to undergraduate researchers and for principal investigators (PIs), postdocs, or other researchers who mentor beginning researchers and wish to share our advice.

We begin by introducing some fundamentals about the responsible conduct of research (RCR), research misconduct, and ethical behavior. We focus on how to do reproducible science and be a responsible author. We provide practical advice for these topics and present scenarios to practice thinking through challenges in research. Our article concludes with decision-making strategies for addressing complex problems.

What is the responsible conduct of research?

To be committed to RCR means upholding the highest standards of honesty, accuracy, efficiency, and objectivity ( Steneck, 2007 ). Each day, RCR requires engaging in research in a conscientious, intentional fashion that yields the best science possible ( “Research Integrity is Much More Than Misconduct,” 2019 ). We adopt a practical, “how-to” approach, discussing the behaviors and habits that yield responsible research. However, some background knowledge about RCR is helpful to frame our discussion.

The scientific community uses many terms to refer to ethical and responsible behavior in research: responsible conduct of research, research integrity, scientific integrity, and research ethics ( National Academies of Science, 2009 ; National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine, 2017 ; Steneck, 2007 ). A helpful way to think about these concepts is “doing good science in a good manner” ( DuBois & Antes, 2018 ). This means that the way researchers do their work, from experimental procedures to data analysis and interpretation, research reporting, and so on, leads to trustworthy research findings and conclusions. It also includes respectful interactions among researchers both within research teams (e.g., between peers, mentors and trainees, and collaborators) and with researchers external to the team (e.g., peer reviewers). We expand on trainee-mentor relationships and interpersonal dynamics with labmates in a companion article ( Antes & Maggi, 2021 ). When research involves human or animal research subjects, RCR includes protecting the well-being of research subjects.

We do not cover all potential RCR topics but focus on what we consider fundamentals for graduate students. Common topics covered in texts and courses on RCR include the following: authorship and publication; collaboration; conflicts of interest; data management, sharing, and ownership; intellectual property; mentor and trainee responsibilities; peer review; protecting human subjects; protecting animal subjects; research misconduct; the role of researchers in society; and laboratory safety. A number of topics prominently discussed among the scientific community in recent years are also relevant to RCR. These include the reproducibility of research ( Baker, 2016 ; Barba, 2016 ; Winchester, 2018 ), diversity and inclusion in science ( Asplund & Welle, 2018 ; Hofstra et al., 2020 ; Meyers, Brown, Moneta-Koehler, & Chalkley, 2018 ; National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine, 2018a ; Roper, 2019 ), harassment and bullying ( Else, 2018 ; National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine, 2018b ; “ No Place for Bullies in Science,” 2018 ), healthy research work environments ( Norris, Dirnagl, Zigmond, Thompson-Peer, & Chow, 2018 ; “ Research Institutions Must Put the Health of Labs First,” 2018 ), and the mental health of graduate students ( Evans, Bira, Gastelum, Weiss, & Vanderford, 2018 ).

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) ( National Institutes of Health, 2009 ) and the National Science Foundation ( National Science Foundation, 2017 ) have formal policies indicating research trainees must receive education in RCR. Researchers are accountable to these funding agencies and the public which supports research through billions in tax dollars annually. The public stands to benefit from, or be harmed by, research. For example, the public may be harmed if medical treatments or social policies are based on untrustworthy research findings. Funding for research, participation in research, and utilization of the fruits of research all rely on public trust ( Resnik, 2011 ). Trustworthy findings are also essential for good stewardship of scarce resources ( Emanuel, Wendler, & Grady, 2000 ). Researchers are further accountable to their peers, colleagues, and scientists more broadly. Trust in the work of other researchers is essential for science to advance. Finally, researchers are accountable for complying with the rules and policies of their universities or research institutions, such as rules about laboratory safety, bullying and harassment, and the treatment of animal research subjects.

What is research misconduct?

When researchers intentionally misrepresent or manipulate their results, these cases of scientific fraud often make the news headlines ( Chappell, 2019 ; O’Connor, 2018 ; Park, 2012 ), and they can seriously undermine public trust in research. These cases also harm trust within the scientific community.

The U.S. defines research misconduct as fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism (FFP) ( Department of Health and Human Services, 2005 ). FFP violate the fundamental ethical principle of honesty. Fabrication is making up data, and falsification is manipulating or changing data or results so they are no longer truthful. Plagiarism is a form of dishonesty because it includes using someone’s words or ideas and portraying them as your own. When brought to light, misconduct involves lengthy investigations and serious consequences, such as ineligibility to receive federal research funding, loss of employment, paper retractions, and, for students, withdrawal of graduate degrees.

One aspect of responsible behavior includes addressing misconduct if you observe it. We suggest a guide titled “Responding to Research Wrongdoing: A User-Friendly Guide” that provides advice for thinking about your options if you think you have observed misconduct ( Keith-Spiegel, Sieber, & Koocher, 2010 ). Your university will have written policies and procedures for investigating allegations of misconduct. Making an allegation is very serious. As Keith-Spiegel et al.’s guide indicates, it is important to know the evidence that supports your claim, and what to expect in the process. We encourage, if possible, talking to the persons involved first. For example, one of us knew of a graduate student who reported to a journal editor their suspicion of falsified data in a manuscript. It turned out that the student was incorrect. Going above the PI directly to the editor ultimately led to the PI leaving the university, and the student had a difficult time finding a new lab to complete their degree. If the student had first spoken to the PI and lab members, they could have learned that their assumptions about the data in the paper were wrong. In turn, they could have avoided accusing the PI of a serious form of scientific misconduct—making up data—and harming everyone’s scientific career.

What shapes ethical behavior in the scientific workplace?

Responsible conduct of research and research misconduct are two sides of a continuum of behavior—RCR upholds the ideals of research and research misconduct violates them. Problematic practices that fall in the middle but are not defined formally as research misconduct have been labeled as detrimental research practices ( National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine, 2017 ). Researchers conducting misleading statistical analyses or PIs providing inadequate supervision are examples of the latter. Research suggests that characteristics of individual researchers and research environments explain (un)ethical behavior in the scientific workplace ( Antes et al., 2007 ; Antes, English, Baldwin, & DuBois, 2018 ; Davis, Riske-Morris, & Diaz, 2007 ; DuBois et al., 2013 ).

These two influences on ethical behavior are helpful to keep in mind when thinking about your behavior. When people think about their ethical behavior, they think about their personal values and integrity and tend to overlook the influence of their environment. While “being a good person” and having the right intentions are essential to ethical behavior, the environment also has an influence. In addition, knowledge of standards for ethical research is important for ethical behavior, and graduate students new to research do not yet know everything they need to. They also have not fully refined their ethical decision-making skills for solving professional problems. We discuss strategies for ethical decision-making in the final section of this article ( McIntosh, Antes, & DuBois, 2020 ).

The research environment influences ethical behavior in a number of ways. For example, if a research group explicitly discusses high standards for research, people will be more likely to prioritize these ideals in their behavior ( Plemmons et al., 2020 ). A mentor who sets a good example is another important factor ( Anderson et al., 2007 ). Research labs must also provide individuals with adequate training, supervision and feedback, opportunities to discuss data, and the psychological safety to feel comfortable communicating about problems, including mistakes ( Antes, Kuykendall, & DuBois, 2019a , 2019b ). On the other hand, unfair research environments, inadequate supervision, poor communication, and severe stress and anxiety may undermine ethical decision-making and behavior; particularly when many of these factors exist together. Thus, (un)ethical behavior is a complex interplay of individual factors (e.g., personality, stress, decision-making skills) and the environment.

For graduate students, it is important to attend to what you are learning and how the environment around you might influence your behavior. You do not know what you do not know, and you necessarily rely on others to teach you responsible practices. So, it is important to be aware. Ultimately, you are accountable for your behavior. You cannot just say “I didn’t know.” Rather, just like you are curious about your scientific questions, maintain a curiosity about responsible behavior as a researcher. If you feel uncomfortable with something, pay attention to that feeling, speak to someone you trust, and seek out information about how to handle the situation. In what follows, we cover key tips for responsible behavior in the areas of reproducibility and authorship that we hope will help you as you begin.

HOW TO DO REPRODUCIBLE SCIENCE

The foremost responsibility of scientists is to ensure they conduct research in such a manner that the findings are trustworthy. Reproducibility is the ability to duplicate results ( Goodman, Fanelli, & Ioannidis, 2016 ). The scientific community has called for greater openness, transparency, and rigor as key remedies for lack of reproducibility ( Munafò et al., 2017 ). As a graduate student, essential to fostering reproducibility is the rigor of your approach to doing experiments and handling data. We discuss how to utilize research protocols, document experiments in a lab notebook, and handle data responsibly.

Utilize research protocols

1. learn and utilize the lab’s protocols.

Research protocols describe the step-by-step procedures for doing an experiment. They are critical for the quality and reproducibility of experiments. Lab members must learn and follow the lab’s protocols with the understanding that they may need to make adjustments based on the requirements of a specific experiment.

Also, it is important to distinguish between the experiment you are performing and analyzing the data from that experiment. For example, the experiment you want to perform might be to determine if loss of a gene blocks cell growth. Several protocols, each with pros and cons, will allow you to examine “cell growth.” Using the wrong experimental protocol can produce data that leads to muddled conclusions. In this example, the gene does block cell growth, but the experiment used to produce the data that you analyze to understand cell growth is wrong, thus giving a result that is a false negative.

When first joining a lab, it is essential to commit to learning the protocols necessary for your assigned research project. Researchers must ensure they are proficient in executing a protocol and can perform their experiments reliably. If you do not feel confident with a protocol, you should do practice runs if possible. Repetition is the best way to work through difficulties with protocols. Often it takes several attempts to work through the steps of a protocol before you will be comfortable performing it. Asking to watch another lab member perform the protocol is also helpful. Be sure to watch closely how steps are performed, as often there are minor steps taken that are not written down. Also, experienced lab members may do things as second nature and not think to explicitly mention them when working through the protocol. Ask questions of other lab members so that you can improve your knowledge and gain confidence with a protocol. It is better to ask a question than potentially ruin a valuable or hard-to-get sample.

Be cautious of differences in the standing protocols in the lab and how you actually perform the experiment. Even the most minor deviations can seriously impact the results and reproducibility of an experiment. As mentioned above, often there are minor things that are done that might not be listed in the protocol. Paying attention and asking questions are the best ways to learn, in addition to adding notes to the protocol if you find minor details are missing.

2. Develop your own protocols

Often you will find that a project requires a protocol that has not been performed in the lab. If performing a new experiment in the lab and no protocol exists, find a protocol and try it. Protocols can be obtained from many different sources. A great source is other labs on campus, as you can speak directly to the person who performs the experiment. There are many journal sources as well, such as Current Protocols, Nature Protocols, Nature Methods, and Cell STAR Methods . These methods journals provide the most detailed protocols for experiments often with troubleshooting tips. Scientific papers are the most common source of protocols. However, keep in mind that due to the common brevity of methods sections, they often omit crucial details or reference other papers that may not contain a complete description of the protocol.

3. Handle mistakes or problems promptly

At some point, everyone encounters problems with a protocol, or realizes they made a mistake. You should be prepared to handle this situation by being able to detail exactly how you performed the experiment. Did you skip a step? Shorten or lengthen a time point? Did you have to make a new buffer or borrow a labmate’s buffer? There are too many ways an experiment can go wrong to list here but being able to recount all the steps you performed in detail will help you work through the problem. Keep in mind that often the best way to understand how to perform an experiment is learning from when something goes wrong. This situation requires you to critically think through what was done and understand the steps taken. When everything works perfectly, it is easy to pay less attention to the details, which can lead to problems down the line.

It is up to you to be attentive and meticulous in the lab. Paying attention to the details may feel like a pain at first, or even seem overwhelming. Practice and repetition will help this focus on details become a natural part of your lab work. Ultimately, this skill will be essential to being a responsible scientist.

Document experiments in a lab notebook

1. recognize the importance of a lab notebook.

Maintaining detailed documentation in a lab notebook allows researchers to keep track of their experiments and generation of data. This detailed documentation helps you communicate about your research with others in the lab, and serves as a basis for preparing publications. It also provides a lasting record for the lab that exists beyond your time in the lab. After graduate students leave the lab, sometimes it is necessary to go back to the results of older experiments. A complete and detailed notebook is essential, or all of the time, effort, and resources are lost.

2. Learn the note-keeping practices in your lab

When you enter a new lab, it is important to understand how the lab keeps notebooks and the expectations for documentation. Being conscientious about documentation will make you a better scientist. In some labs, the PI might routinely examine your notebook, while in other labs you may be expected to maintain a notebook, but it may not be regularly viewed by others. It is tempting to become relaxed in documentation if you think your notebook may not be reviewed. Avoid this temptation; documentation of your ideas and process will improve your ability to think critically about research. Further, even if the PI or lab members do not physically view your notebook, you will need to communicate with them about your experiments. This documentation is necessary to communicate effectively about your work.

3. Organize your lab notebook

Different labs use different formats; some use electronic notebooks while others handwritten notebooks. The contents of a good notebook include the purpose of the experiment, the details of the experimental procedure, the data, and thoughts about the results. To effectively document your experiment, there are 5 critical questions that the information you record should be able to answer.

• Why I am doing this experiment? (purpose)
• What did I do to perform the experiment? (protocol)
• What are the results of what I did? (data, graphs)
• What do I think about the results?
• What do I think are the next steps?

We also recommend a table of contents. It will make the information more useful to you and the lab in the future. The table of contents should list the title of the experiment, the date(s) it was performed, and the page numbers on which it is recorded. Also, make sure that you write clearly and provide a legend or explanation of any shorthand or non-standard abbreviation you use. Often labs will have a combination of written lab notebooks and electronic data. It is important to reference where electronic data are located that go with each experiment. The idea is to make it as easy as possible to understand what you did and where to find all the data (electronic and hard copy) that accompanies your experiment.

Keeping a lab notebook becomes easier with practice. It can be thought of almost like journaling about your experiment. Sometimes people think of it as just a place to paste their protocol and a graph or data. We strongly encourage you to include your thoughts about why you made the decisions you made when conducting the experiment and to document your thoughts about next steps.

4. Commit to doing it the right way

A common reason to become lax in documentation is feeling rushed for time. Although documentation takes time, it saves time in the long-run and fosters good science. Without good notes, you will waste time trying to recall precisely what you did, reproduce your findings, and remember what you thought would be important next steps. The lab notebook helps you think about your research critically and keep your thoughts together. It can also save you time later when writing up results for publication. Further, well-documented data will help you draft a cogent and rigorous dissertation.

Handle data responsibly

1. keep all data.

Data are the product of research. Data include raw data, processed data, analyzed data, figures, and tables. Many data today are electronic, but not all. Generating data requires a lot of time and resources and researchers must treat data with care. The first essential tip is to keep all data. Do not discard data just because the experiment did not turn out as expected. A lot of experiments do not turn out to yield publishable data, but the results are still important for informing next steps.

Always keep the original, raw data. That is, as you process and analyze data, always maintain an unprocessed version of the original data.

Universities and funding agencies have data retention policies. These policies specify the number of years beyond a grant that data must be kept. Some policies also indicate researchers need to retain original data that served as the basis for a publication for a certain number of years. Therefore, your data will be important well beyond your time in graduate school. Most labs require you to keep samples for reanalysis until a paper is published, then the analyzed data are enough. If you leave a lab before a paper is accepted for publication, you are responsible for ensuring your data and original samples are well documented for others to find and use.

2. Document all data

In addition to keeping all data, data must be well-organized and documented. This means that no matter the way you keep your data (e.g., electronic or in written lab notebooks), there is a clear guide—in your lab notebook, a binder, or on a lab hard drive—to finding the data for a particular experiment. For example, it must be clear which data produced a particular graph. Version control of data is also critical. Your documentation should include “metadata” (data about your data) that tracks versions of the data. For example, as you edit data for a table, you should save separate versions of the tables, name the files sequentially, and note the changes that were made to each version.

3. Backup your data

You should backup electronic data regularly. Ideally, your lab has a shared server or cloud storage to backup data. If you are supposed to put your data there, make sure you do it! When you leave the lab, it must be possible to find your data.

4. Perform data analysis honestly and competently

Inappropriate use of statistics is a major concern in the scientific community, as the results and conclusions will be misleading if done incorrectly ( DeMets, 1999 ). Some practices are clearly an abuse of statistics, while other inappropriate practices stem from lack of knowledge. For example, a practice called “p-hacking” describes when researchers “collect or select data or statistical analyses until nonsignificant results become significant” ( Head, Holman, Lanfear, Kahn, & Jennions, 2015 ). In addition to avoiding such misbehavior, it is essential to be proficient with statistics to ensure you do statistical procedures appropriately. Learning statistical procedures and analyzing data takes many years of practice, and your statistics courses may only cover the basics. You will need to know when to consult others for help. In addition to consulting members in your lab or your PI, your university may have statistical experts who can provide consultations.

5. Master pressure to obtain favored results

When you conduct an experiment, the results are the results. As a beginning researcher, it is important to be prepared to manage the frustration of experiments not turning out as expected. It is also important to manage the real or perceived pressure to produce favored results. Investigators can become wedded to a hypothesis, and they can have a difficult time accepting the results. Sometimes you may feel this pressure coming from yourself; for example, if you want to please your PI, or if you want to get results for a certain publication. It is important to always follow the data no matter where it leads.

If you do feel pressure, this situation can be uncomfortable and stressful. If you have been meticulous and followed the above recommendations, this can be one great safeguard. You will be better able to confidently communicate your results to the PI because of your detailed documentation, and you will be more confident in your procedures if the possibility of error is suggested. Typically, with enough evidence that the unexpected results are real, the PI will concede. We recommend seeking the support of friends or colleagues to vent and cope with stress. In the rare case that the PI does not relent, you could turn to an advisor outside the lab if you need advice about how to proceed. They can help you look at the data objectively and also help you think about the interpersonal aspects of navigating this situation.

6. Communicate about your data in the lab

A critical element of reproducible research is communication in the lab. Ideally, there are weekly or bi-weekly meetings to discuss data. You need to develop your communication skills for writing and speaking about data. Often you and your labmates will discuss experimental issues and results informally during the course of daily work. This is an excellent way to hone critical thinking and communication skills about data.

Scenario 1 – The Protocol is Not Working

At the beginning of a rotation during their first year, a graduate student is handed a lab notebook and a pen and is told to keep track of their work. There does not appear to be a specific format to follow. There are standard lab protocols that everyone follows, but minor tweaks to the protocols do not seem to be tracked from experiment to experiment in the standard lab protocol nor in other lab notebooks. After two weeks of trying to follow one of the standard lab protocols, the student still cannot get the experiment to work. The student has included the appropriate positive and negative controls which are failing, making the experiment uninterpretable. After asking others in the lab for help, the graduate student learns that no one currently in the lab has performed this particular experiment. The former lab member who had performed the experiment only lists the standard protocol in their lab notebook.

How should the graduate student start to solve the problem?

Speaking to the PI would be the next logical step. As a first-year student in a lab rotation, the PI should expect this type of situation and provide additional troubleshooting guidance. It is possible that the PI may want to see how the new graduate student thinks critically and handles adversity in the lab. Rather than giving an answer, the PI might ask the student to work through the problem. The PI should give guidance, but it may not be an immediate fix for the problem. If the PI’s suggestions fail to correct the problem, asking a labmate or the PI for the contact information of the former lab member who most recently performed the experiment would be a reasonable next step. The graduate student’s conversations with the PI and labmates in this situation will help them learn a lot about how the people in the lab interact.

Most of the answers for these types of problems will require you as a graduate student to take the initiative to answer. They will require your effort and ingenuity to talk to other lab members, other labs at the university, and even scour the literature for alternatives. While labs have standard protocols, there are multiple ways to do many experiments, and working out an alternative will teach you more than when everything works. Having to troubleshoot problems will result in better standard protocols in the lab and better science.

HOW TO BE A RESPONSIBLE AUTHOR

Researchers communicate their findings via peer-reviewed publications, and publications are important for advancing in a research career. Many graduate students will first author or co-author publications in graduate school. For good advice on how to write a research manuscript, consult the Current Protocols article “How to write a research manuscript” ( Frank, 2018 ). We focus on the issues of assigning authors and reporting your findings responsibly. First, we describe some important basics: journal impact factors, predatory journals, and peer review.

What are journal impact factors?

It is helpful to understand journal impact factors. There is criticism about an overemphasis on impact factors for evaluating the quality or importance of researchers’ work ( DePellegrin & Johnston, 2015 ), but they remain common for this purpose. Journal impact factors reflect the average number of times articles in a journal were cited in the last two years. Higher impact factors place journals at a higher rank. Approximately 2% of journals have an impact factor of 10 or higher. For example, Cell, Science, and Nature have impact factors of approximately 39, 42, and 43, respectively. Journals can be great journals but have lower impact factors; often this is because they focus on a smaller specialty field. For example, Journal of Immunology and Oncogene are respected journals, but their impact factors are about 4 and 7, respectively.

Research trainees often want to publish in journals with the highest possible impact factor because they expect this to be viewed favorably when applying to future positions. We encourage you to bear in mind that many different journals publish excellent science and focus on publishing where your work will reach the desired audience. Also, keep in mind that while a high impact factor can direct you to respectable, high-impact science, it does not guarantee that the science in the paper is good or even correct. You must critically evaluate all papers you read no matter the impact factor.

What are predatory journals?

Predatory journals have flourished over the past few years as publishing science has moved online. An international panel defined predatory journals as follows ( Grudniewicz et al., 2019 ):

Predatory journals and publishers are entities that prioritize self-interest at the expense of scholarship and are characterized by false or misleading information, deviation from best editorial and publication practices, a lack of transparency, and/or the use of aggressive and indiscriminate solicitation practices. (p. 211)

Often young researchers receive emails soliciting them to submit their work to a journal. There are typically small fees (around $99 US) requested but these fees will be much lower than open access fees of reputable journals (often around $2000 US). A warning sign of a predatory journal is outlandish promises, such as 24-hour peer review or immediate publication. You can find a list of predatory journals created by a postdoc in Europe at BeallsList.net ( “Beall’s List of Potential Predatory Journals and Publishers,” 2020 ).

What is peer review?

Peer reviewers are other scientists who have the expertise to evaluate a manuscript. Typically 2 or 3 reviewers evaluate a manuscript. First, an editor performs an initial screen of the manuscript to ensure its appropriateness for the journal and that it meets basic quality standards. At this stage, an editor can decide to reject the manuscript and not send it to review. Not sending a paper for peer review is common in the highest impact journals that receive more submissions per year than can be reviewed and published. For average-impact journals and specialty journals, typically your paper will be sent for peer review.

In general, peer review focuses on three aspects of a manuscript: research design and methods, validity of the data and conclusions, and significance. Peer reviewers assess the merit and rigor of the research design and methodology, and they evaluate the overall validity of the results, interpretations, and conclusions. Essentially, reviewers want to ensure that the data support the claims. Additionally, reviewers evaluate the overall significance, or contribution, of the findings, which involves the novelty of the research and the likelihood that the findings will advance the field. Significance standards vary between journals. Some journals are open to publishing findings that are incremental advancements in a field, while others want to publish only what they deem as major advancements. This feature can distinguish the highest impact journals which seek the most significant advancements and other journals that tend to consider a broader range of work as long as it is scientifically sound. It is important to keep in mind that determining at the stage of review and publication whether a paper is “high impact” is quite subjective. In reality, this can only really be determined in retrospect.

The key ethical issues in peer review are fairness, objectivity, and confidentiality ( Shamoo & Resnik, 2015 ). Peer reviewers are to evaluate the manuscript on its merits and not based on biases related to the authors or the science itself. If reviewers have a conflict of interest, this should be disclosed to the editor. Confidentiality of peer review means that the reviewers should keep private the information; they should not share the information with others or use it to their benefit. Reviewers can ultimately recommend that the manuscript is rejected, revised, and resubmitted (major or minor revisions), or accepted. The editor evaluates the reviewers’ feedback and makes a judgment about rejecting, accepting, or requesting a revision. Sometimes PIs will ask experienced graduate students to assist with peer reviewing a manuscript. This is a good learning opportunity. The PI should disclose to the editor that they included a trainee in preparing the review.

Assign authorship fairly

Authorship gives credit to the people who contributed to the research. This includes thinking of the ideas, designing and performing experiments, interpreting the results, and writing the paper. Two key questions regarding authorship include: 1 - Who will be an author? 2 - What will be the order in which authors are listed? These seem simple on the surface but can get quite complex.

1. Know authorship guidelines

Authorship guidelines published by journals, professional societies, and universities communicate key principles of authorship and standards for earning authorship. The core ethical principle of assigning authorship is fairness in who receives credit for the work. The people who contributed to the work should get credit for it. This seems simply enough, but determining authorship can (and often does) create conflict.

Many universities have authorship guidelines, and you should know the policies at your university. The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) provides four criteria for determining who should be an author ( International Committee of Medical Journal Editors, 2020 ). These criteria indicate that an author should do all of the following: 1) make “substantial contributions” to the development of the idea or research design, or to acquiring, analyzing, or interpreting the data, 2) write the manuscript or revise it a substantive way, 3) give approval of the final manuscript (i.e., before it is submitted for review, and after it is revised, if necessary), and 4) agree to be responsible for any questions about the accuracy or integrity of the research.

Several types of authorship violate these guidelines and should be avoided. Guest authorship is when respected researchers are added out of appreciation, or to have the manuscript be perceived more favorably to get it published or increase its impact. Gift authorship is giving authorship to reward an individual, or as a favor. Ghost authorship is when someone made significant contributions to the paper but is not listed as an author. To increase transparency, some journals require authors to indicate how each individual contributed to the research and manuscript.

2. Apply the guidelines

Conflicts often arise from disagreements about how much people contributed to the research and whether those contributions merit authorship. The best approach is an open, honest, and ongoing discussion about authorship, which we discuss in #3 below. To have effective, informed conversations about authorship, you must understand how to apply the guidelines to your specific situation. The following is a simple rule of thumb that indicates there are three components of authorship. We do not list giving final approval of the manuscript and agreeing to be accountable, but we do consider these essentials of authorship.

• Thinking – this means contributing to the ideas leading to the hypothesis of the work, designing experiments to address the hypothesis, and/or analyzing the results in the larger context of the literature in the field.
• Doing – this means performing and analyzing the experiments.
• Writing – this means editing a draft, or writing the entire paper. The first author often writes the entire first draft.

In our experience, a first author would typically do all three. They also usually coordinate the writing and editing process. Co-authors are typically very involved in at least two of the three, and are somewhat involved in the other. The PI, who oversees and contributes to all three, is often the last, or “senior author.” The “senior author” is typically the “corresponding author”—the person listed as the individual to contact about the paper. The other co-authors are listed between the first and senior author either alphabetically, or more commonly, in order from the largest to smallest contribution.

Problems in assigning authorship typically arise due to people’s interpretations of #1 (thinking) and #2 (doing)—what and how much each individual contributed to a project’s design, execution, and analysis. Different fields or PIs may have their own slight variations on these guidelines. The potential conflicts associated with assigning authorship lead to the most common recommendation for responsibly assigning authorship: discuss authorship expectations early and revisit them during the project.

3. Discuss authorship with your collaborators

Publications are important for career advancement, so you can see why people might be worried about fairness in assigning authorship. If the problem arises from a lack of a shared understanding about contributions to the research, the only way to clarify this is an open discussion. This discussion should ideally take place very early at the beginning of a project, and should be ongoing. Hopefully you work in a laboratory that makes these discussions a natural part of the research process; this makes it much easier to understand the expectations upfront.

We encourage you to speak up about your interest in making a contribution that would merit authorship, especially if you want to earn first authorship. Sometimes norms about authoring papers in a lab make it clear you are expected to first and co-author publications, but it is best to communicate your interest in earning authorship. If the project is not yours, but you wish to collaborate, you can inquire what you may be able to contribute that would merit authorship.

If it is not a norm in your lab to discuss authorship throughout the life of projects, then as a graduate student you may feel reluctant to speak up. You could initiate a conversation with a more senior graduate student, a postdoc, or your PI, depending on the dynamics in the group. You could ask generally about how the lab approaches assignment of authorship, but discussing a specific project and paper may be best. It may feel awkward to ask, but asking early is less uncomfortable than waiting until the end of the project. If the group is already drafting a manuscript and you are told that your contribution is insufficient for authorship, this situation is much more discouraging than if you had asked earlier about what is expected to earn authorship.

How to report findings responsibly

The most significant responsibility of authors is to present their research accurately and honestly. Deliberately presenting misleading information is clearly unethical, but there are significant judgment calls about how to present your research findings. For example, an author can mislead by overstating the conclusions given what the data support.

1. Commit to presenting your findings honestly

Any good scientific manuscript writer will tell you that you need to “tell a good story.” This means that your paper is organized and framed to draw the reader into the research and convince them of the importance of the findings. But, this story must be sound and justified by the data. Other authors are presenting their findings in the best, most “publishable” light, so it is a balancing act to be persuasive but also responsible in presenting your findings in a trustworthy manner. To present your findings honestly, you must be conscious of how you interpret your data and present your conclusions so that they are accurate and not overstated.

One misbehavior known as “HARKing,” Hypothesis After the Results are Known, occurs when hypotheses are created after seeing the results of an experiment, but they are presented as if they were defined prior to collecting the data ( Munafò et al., 2017 ). This practice should be avoided. HARKing may be driven, in part, by a concern in scientific publishing known as publication bias. This bias is a preference that reviewers, editors, and researchers have for papers describing positive findings instead of negative findings ( Carroll, Toumpakari, Johnson, & Betts, 2017 ). This preference can lead to manipulating one’s practices, such as by HARKing, so that positive findings can be reported.

It is important to note that in addition to avoiding misbehaviors such as HARKing, all researchers are susceptible to a number of more subtle traps in judgment. Even the most well-intentioned researcher may jump to conclusions, discount alternative explanations, or accept results that seem correct without further scrutiny ( Nuzzo, 2015 ). Therefore, researchers must not only commit to presenting their findings honestly but consider how they can counteract such traps by slowing down and increasing their skepticism towards their findings.

2. Provide an appropriate amount of detail

Providing enough detail in a manuscript can be a challenge with the word limits imposed by most journals. Therefore, you will need to determine what details to include and which to exclude, or potentially include in the supplemental materials. Methods sections can be long and are often the first to be shortened, but complete methods are important for others to evaluate the research and to repeat the methods in other studies. Even more significant is making decisions about what experimental data to include and potentially exclude from the manuscript. Researchers must determine what data is required to create a complete scientific story that supports the central hypothesis of the paper. On the other hand, it is not necessary or helpful to include so much data in the manuscript, or in supplemental material, that the central point of the paper is difficult to discern. It is a tricky balance.

3. Follow proper citation practices

Of course, responsible authorship requires avoiding plagiarism. Many researchers think that plagiarism is not a concern for them because they assume it is always done intentionally by “copying and pasting” someone else’s words and claiming them as your own. Sometimes poor writing practices, such as taking notes from references without distinguishing between direct quotes and paraphrased material, can lead to including material that is not quoted properly. More broadly, proper citation practices include accurately and completely referencing prior studies to provide appropriate context for your manuscript.

4. Attend to the other important details

The journal will require several pieces of additional information, such as disclosure of sources of funding and potential conflicts of interest. Typically, graduate students do not have relationships that constitute conflicts of interest, but a PI who is a co-author may. In submitting a manuscript, also make sure to acknowledge individuals not listed as authors but who contributed to the work.

5. Share data and promote transparency

Data sharing is a key facet of promoting transparency in science ( Nosek et al., 2015 ). It will be important to know the expectations of the journals in which you wish to publish. Many top journals now require data sharing; for example, sharing your data files in an online repository so others have access to the data for secondary use. Funding agencies like NIH also increasingly require data sharing. To further foster transparency and public trust in research, researchers must deposit their final peer-reviewed manuscripts that report on research funded by NIH to PubMed Central. PubMed makes biomedical and life science research publicly accessible in a free, online database.

Scenario 2 – Authors In Conflict

To prepare a manuscript for publication, a postdoc’s data is added to a graduate student’s thesis project. After working together to combine the data and write the paper, the postdoc requests co-first authorship on the paper. The graduate student balks at this request on the basis that it is their thesis project. In a weekly meeting with the lab’s PI to discuss the status of the paper, the graduate student states that they should divide the data between the authors as a way to prove that the graduate student should be the sole first author. The PI agrees to this attempt to quantify how much data each person contributed to the manuscript. All parties agree the writing and thinking were equally shared between them. After this assessment, the graduate student sees that the postdoc actually contributed more than half of the data presented in the paper. The graduate student and a second graduate student contributed the remaining data; this means the graduate student contributed much less than half of the data in the paper. However, the graduate student is still adamant that they must be the sole first author of the paper because it is their thesis project.

Is the graduate student correct in insisting that it is their project, so they are entitled to be the sole first author?

Co-first authorship became popular about 10 years ago as a way to acknowledge shared contributions to a paper in which authors worked together and contributed equally. If the postdoc contributed half of the data and worked with the graduate student to combine their interpretations and write the first draft of the paper, then the postdoc did make a substantial contribution. If the graduate student wrote much of the first draft of the paper, contributed significantly to the second half of data, and played a major role in the thesis concept and design, this is also a major contribution. We summarized authorship requirements as contributing to thinking, doing, and writing, and we noted that a first author usually contributes to all of these. The graduate student has met all 3 elements to claim first authorship. However, it appears that the postdoc has also met these 3 requirements. Thus, it is at least reasonable for the postdoc to ask about co-first authorship.

The best way to move forward is to discuss their perspectives openly. Both the graduate student and postdoc want first authorship on papers to advance their careers. The postdoc feels they contributed more to the overall concept and design than the graduate student is recognizing, and the postdoc did contribute half of the data. This is likely frustrating and upsetting for the postdoc. On the other hand, perhaps the postdoc is forgetting how much a thesis becomes like “your baby,” so to speak. The work is the graduate student’s thesis, so it is easy to see why the graduate student would feel a sense of ownership of it. Given this fact, it may be hard for the graduate student to accept the idea that they would share first-author recognition for the work. Yet, the graduate student should consider that the manuscript would not be possible without the postdoc’s contribution. Further, if the postdoc was truly being unreasonable, then the postdoc could make the case for sole first authorship based on contributing the most data to the paper, in addition to contributing ideas and writing the paper. The graduate student should consider that the postdoc may be suggesting co-first authorship in good faith.

As with any interpersonal conflict, clear communication is key. While it might be temporarily uncomfortable to voice their views and address this disagreement, it is critical to avoiding permanent damage to their working relationship. The pair should consider each other’s perspectives and potential alternatives. For example, if the graduate student is first author and the postdoc second, at a minimum they could include an author note in the manuscript that describes the contribution of each author. This would make it clear the scope of the postdoc’s contribution, if they decided not to go with co-first authorship. Also, the graduate student should consider their assumptions about co-first authorship. Maybe they assume it makes it appear they contributed less, but instead, perhaps co-first authorship highlights their collaborative approach to science. Collaboration is a desirable quality many (although arguably not all) research organizations look for when they are hiring.

They will also need to speak with others for advice. The pair should definitely speak with the PI who could provide input about how these cases have been handled in the past. Ultimately, if they cannot reach an agreement, the PI, who is likely to be the last or “senior” author, may make the final decision. They should also speak to the other graduate student who is an author.

If either individual is upset with the situation, they will want to discuss it when they have had time to cool down. This might mean taking a day before discussing, or speaking with someone outside of the lab for support. Ideally, all authors on this paper would have initiated this conversation earlier, and the standards in the lab for first authorship would be discussed routinely. Clear communication may have avoided the conflict.

HOW TO USE DECISION-MAKING STRATEGIES TO NAVIGATE CHALLENGES

We have provided advice on some specific challenges you might encounter in research. This final section covers our overarching recommendation that you adopt a set of ethical decision-making strategies. These strategies help researchers address challenges by helping them think through a problem and possible alternatives ( McIntosh et al., 2020 ). The strategies encourage you to gather information, examine possible outcomes, consider your assumptions, and address emotional reactions before acting. They are especially helpful when you are uncertain how to proceed, face a new problem, or when the consequences of a decision could negatively impact you or others. The strategies also help people be honest with themselves, such as when they are discounting important factors or have competing goals, by encouraging them to identify outside perspectives and test their motivations. You can remember the strategies using the acronym SMART .

1. S eek Help

Obtain input from others who can be objective and that you trust. They can assist you with assessing the situation, predicting possible outcomes, and identifying potential options. They can also provide you with support. Individuals to consult may be peers, other faculty, or people in your personal life. It is important that you trust the people you talk with, but it is also good when they challenge your perspective, or encourage you to think in a new way about a problem. Keep in mind that people such as program directors and university ombudsmen are often available for confidential, objective advice.

2. M anage Emotions

Consider your emotional reaction to the situation and how it might influence your assessment of the situation, and your potential decisions and actions. In particular, identify negative emotions, like frustration, anxiety, fear, and anger, as they particularly tend to diminish decision-making and the quality of interactions with others. Take time to address these emotions before acting, for example, by exercising, listening to music, or simply taking a day before responding.

3. A nticipate Consequences

Think about how the situation could turn out. This includes for you, for the research team, and anyone else involved. Consider the short, middle-term, and longer-term impacts of the problem and your potential approach to addressing the situation. Ideally, it is possible to identify win-win outcomes. Often, however, in tough professional situations, you may need to select the best option from among several that are not ideal.

4. R ecognize Rules and Context

Determine if any ethical principles, professional policies, or rules apply that might help guide your choices. For instance, if the problem involves an authorship dispute, consider the authorship guidelines that apply. Recognizing the context means considering the situational factors that could impact your options and how you proceed. For example, factors such as the reality that ultimately the PI may have the final decision about authorship.

5. T est Assumptions and Motives

Examine your beliefs about the situation and whether any of your thoughts may not be justified. This includes critically examining the personal motivations and goals that are driving your interpretation of the problem and thoughts about how to resolve it.

These strategies do not have to be engaged in order, and they are interrelated. For example, seeking help can help you manage emotions, test assumptions, and anticipate consequences. Go back to the scenarios and our advice throughout this article, and you will see many of our suggestions align with these strategies. Practice applying SMART strategies when you encounter a problem and they will become more natural.

Learning practices for responsible research will be the foundation for your success in graduate school and your career. We encourage you to be reflective and intentional as you learn and hope that our advice helps you along the way.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by the National Human Genome Research Institute (Antes, K01HG008990) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (UL1 TR002345).

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What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

The search for knowledge is closely linked to the object of study; that is, to the reconstruction of the facts that will provide an explanation to an observed event and that at first sight can be considered as a problem. It is very human to seek answers and satisfy our curiosity. Let’s talk about research.

Content Index

What is Research?

What are the characteristics of research.

• Comparative analysis chart

Qualitative methods

Quantitative methods, 8 tips for conducting accurate research.

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research , and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis .

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

• Identify potential and new customers
• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities
• Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
• The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
• Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
• There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with it.
• It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research opportunities.
• It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
• Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

• Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory data analysis process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

• Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

• Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires . You can use this data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized data repository .

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative .

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods .

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended questions . The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

• One-to-one Interview
• Focus Groups
• Ethnographic studies
• Text Analysis

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms . It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

• Survey research
• Descriptive research
• Correlational research

LEARN MORE: Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Gather insights

• Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a sentence describing each one.
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
• Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
• Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in a SWOT analysis .
• Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
• Act on your strategies
• Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
• Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret results.

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your study. Remember how the process you have completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your analysis revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and recommendations.

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How to Do Research

Last Updated: March 13, 2023 References

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. This article has been viewed 228,310 times.

The idea of doing research may seem daunting, but as long as you keep yourself organized and focus on the question you want to answer, you'll be fine. If you're curious and interested in the topic, you might even find it fun! We here at wikiHow have gathered answers to all your most common questions about how to do research, from finding a good topic to identifying the best sources and writing your final paper.

How do I find a topic to research?

• For example, if you're researching in the political science field, you might be interested in determining what leads people to believe that the 2020 US presidential election was illegitimate.

How do I get started on my research?

• For example, if you're researching the 2020 election, you might find that "absentee ballots" and "voting by mail" come up frequently. Those are issues you could look into further to figure out how they impacted the final election results.
• You don't necessarily have to use the overview articles you look at as resources in your actual paper. Even Wikipedia articles can be a good way to learn more about a topic and you can check the references for more reputable sources that might work for your paper.

What's the best way to keep track of my sources?

• Research papers typically discuss 2 or 3 separate things that work together to answer the research question. You might also want to make a note on the front of which thing that source relates to. That'll make it easier for you to organize your sources later.
• For example, if you're researching the 2020 election, you might have a section of your paper discussing voting by mail. For the sources that directly address that issue, write "voting by mail" in the corner.

What kind of notes should I be taking as I research?

• If you find something that you think would make a good quote, copy it out exactly with quote marks around it, then add the page number where it appears so you can correctly cite it in your paper without having to go back and hunt for it again.

How do I evaluate the quality of a source?

• Does the article discuss or reference another article? (If so, use that article instead.)
• What expertise or authority does the author have?
• When was the material written? (Is it the most up-to-date reference you could use?)
• Why was the article published? (Is it trying to sell you something or persuade you to adopt a certain viewpoint?)
• Are the research methods used consistent and reliable? (Appropriate research methods depend on what was studied.)

What if I'm having a hard time finding good sources?

• For example, if you're writing about the 2020 election, you might find tons of stories online, but very little that is reputable enough for you to use in your paper. Because the election happened so recently, it might be too soon for there to be a lot of solid academic research on it. Instead, you might focus on the 2016 election.
• You can also ask for help. Your instructor might be able to point you toward good sources. Research librarians are also happy to help you.

How do I organize my research for my paper?

• For example, if you're researching the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the 2020 election, you might have sections on social distancing and cleaning at in-person voting locations, the accessibility of mail-in ballots, and early voting.

What's the best way to start writing my paper?

• Include an in-text citation for everything that needs one, even in your initial rough draft. That'll help you make sure that you don't inadvertently misattribute or fail to cite something as you work your way through substantive drafts.
• Write your introduction and conclusion only after you're satisfied that the body of your paper is essentially what you want to turn in. Then, you can polish everything up for the final draft.

How can I make sure I'm not plagiarizing?

• If you have any doubt over whether you should cite something, go ahead and do it. You're better off to err on the side of over-citing than to look like you're taking credit for an idea that isn't yours.
• ↑ https://www.nhcc.edu/student-resources/library/doinglibraryresearch/basic-steps-in-the-research-process
• ↑ Matthew Snipp, PhD. Sociology Professor, Stanford University. Expert Interview. 26 March 2020.
• ↑ https://library.taylor.edu/eng-212/research-paper
• ↑ http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/research/research_paper.html
• ↑ https://www.potsdam.edu/sites/default/files/documents/support/tutoring/cwc/6-Simple-Steps-for-Writing-a-Research-Paper.pdf
• ↑ https://www.umgc.edu/current-students/learning-resources/writing-center/online-guide-to-writing/tutorial/chapter4/ch4-05.html

Expert Q&A

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About This Article

If you need to do research on a particular topic, start by searching the internet for any information you can find on the subject. In particular, look for sites that are sourced by universities, scientists, academic journals, and government agencies. Next, visit your local library and use the electric card catalog to research which books, magazines, and journals will have information on your topic. Take notes as you read, and write down all of the information you’ll need to cite your sources in your final project. To learn how interviewing a first-hand source can help you during your research, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Become a Research Psychologist

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Why Become a Research Psychologist

What do research psychologists do, where do research psychologists work, research psychology careers.

What do you do if you love psychology but have no interest in working in mental health? Fortunately, psychology is a very diverse field, and there are plenty of opportunities. One that you might consider is becoming a research psychologist.

Consider the following question from a reader:

" I love psychology, which is why I'm currently working on my bachelor's degree in psychology. I don't want to work in mental health, so my ultimate plan is to become a researcher. While I know that this means I will probably need to go to graduate school, I'm not quite sure exactly where to begin. What type of psychology degree do I need if I want to work in research?"

At a Glance

What do you do if you love psychology but don't want to become a therapist or work in mental health? You might consider becoming a research psychologist. These professionals conduct research and may work in various settings, including universities, research labs, the military, government agencies, and private businesses.

This scenario is not at all uncommon in psychology. Many students love the subject, yet are not at all interested in working in mental health settings. Experimental fields are great options for people who are fascinated by psychology and enjoy performing research.

As a psychology student , you've probably already gotten a taste of just how diverse the field can be. This can be a great thing because it allows for so many different career paths and options, but it can also be confusing for students as they struggle to select an educational path.

Just like many other areas of psychology , becoming a research psychologist is not a "one size fits all" career. There are actually many different degrees that you could potentially pursue.

Start by taking into account what type of research you want to perform and what specific topics interest you the most.

In order to decide if this field is right for you, it is important to first understand exactly what these professionals do:

• Also known as experimental psychologists , research psychologists study a broad range of human and animal behavior.
• They design and conduct experiments exploring how people act, think, behave, interact, learn, feel, and perform under different conditions.
• They also design studies and evaluate research for flaws and bias.
• This can encompass an enormous range of topics, including memory , attention, cognition, decision-making, perception, and just about any psychological topic you can think of!

If you enjoy research and still want to work in mental health, there are also mental health professionals who perform research and conduct studies in clinical settings.

Educational backgrounds and requirements for experimental psychologists can vary depending upon where you want to work.

In most cases, you will start by earning a bachelor's degree in psychology. Some students may then choose to earn a master's, but many will go on to receive a doctorate degree.

Bachelor's Degree

Many students interested in becoming research psychologists begin with a bachelor's in psychology . However, some come from a background in a related area such as social work or even from an entirely unrelated degree area altogether.

Remember, it is possible to switch to psychology for graduate school , even if your undergraduate degree is in an unrelated subject.

Master's Degree

In some cases, students might then choose to pursue a master's degree in experimental psychology. However, it is important to note that job opportunities are generally more limited with a master's degree, which is why many opt to instead go on to earn a doctorate degree in psychology .

Doctorate Degree

While you might think you are limited to earning a PhD in experimental psychology, there are actually many different options that you might opt to pursue.

For example, if you are interested in studying the human brain, you might earn a degree focused on neuropsychology. Have an active interest in social behavior? Then, you might want to consider a doctorate in social psychology .

How to Get Started

While you might not be exactly sure about what specialty you want to pursue, you can now do plenty of things to prepare for your future as a research psychologist . Start by taking as many undergraduate courses in research methods , statistics , and experimental design as possible.

Sign up for research opportunities through your school's psychology department and consider signing up as a research assistant. It's a great way to gain valuable experience while earning college credits.

As you can see, research is something that plays a significant role in virtually every field of psychology . Your goal now is to determine which particular specialty area interests you the most and exactly where you might want to work someday.

Research psychologists are employed in a wide range of sectors, including private research firms, universities, corporations, the military, and government agencies.

So what kind of jobs will you be able to get as a research psychologist? While there are many different options, a few that you might consider include:

College Professor

Many research psychologists work at colleges and universities, teaching undergraduate and graduate students and conducting research.

Research Analyst

A research analyst evaluates data that has been collected. This career involves performing statistical analyses and managing data to ensure it is collected, recorded, and analyzed properly.

Research Scientist

A research scientist conducted grant-funded research. They are often the lead investigators of a study and are responsible for hiring assistants, managing projects, designing experiments, writing journal articles, and sharing the results of their experiments.

If you enjoy research and aren't interested in working in the field of mental health, a career as a research psychologist might be a great choice for you. To enter this field, you should focus on earning an undergraduate degree in psychology before going to graduate school to get your doctorate. Taking coursework in statistics and research methodology can help, but you should also take advantage of any opportunity to participate in research.

Bishop DV. The psychology of experimental psychologists: Overcoming cognitive constraints to improve research: The 47th Sir Frederic Bartlett Lecture .  Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) . 2020;73(1):1-19. doi:10.1177/1747021819886519

Smith KV, Thew GR. Conducting research in clinical psychology practice: Barriers, facilitators, and recommendations .  Br J Clin Psychol . 2017;56(3):347-356. doi:10.1111/bjc.12142

Scholtz SE, de Klerk W, de Beer LT. The use of research methods in psychological research: A systematised review .  Front Res Metr Anal . 2020;5:1. doi:10.3389/frma.2020.00001

American Psychological Association.  Pursuing a Career in Experimental Psychology . Updated March 2014.

The Princeton Review.  Experimental Psychology .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Exploring the World of 250+ Interesting Topics to Research

Research is a fascinating journey into the unknown, a quest for answers, and a process of discovery. Whether you’re an academic, a student, or just a curious mind, finding the right and interesting topics to research is paramount. Not only does it determine the success of your research project, but it can also make the experience enjoyable. 

In this blog, we’ll delve into the art of selecting interesting topics to research, particularly catering to the average reader.

How to Select Interesting Topics to Research?

Table of Contents

Choosing a research topic is like setting sail on a ship. It’s a decision that will dictate your course, so you must make it wisely. Here are some effective strategies to help you pick a captivating topic:

• Personal Interests: Researching a topic you’re genuinely passionate about can turn the entire process into an exciting adventure. Your enthusiasm will show in your work and make it more engaging for the reader.
• Current Trends and Issues: Current events and trends are always intriguing because they’re relevant. They often raise questions and uncertainties, making them excellent research candidates. Think of topics like the impact of a global pandemic on mental health or the evolution of renewable energy technologies in the face of climate change.
• Problem-Solving Approach: Identify a problem that needs a solution or an unanswered question. Researching with the aim to solve a real-world issue can be highly motivating. For instance, you could explore strategies to reduce plastic waste in your community.
• Impact and Relevance: Consider the significance of your topic. Will it impact people’s lives or contribute to existing knowledge? Research with a purpose tends to be more engaging. Topics like gender equality, public health, or environmental conservation often fall into this category.
• Unexplored or Unique Topics: Researching less-explored or unique topics can be exciting. It gives you the opportunity to contribute something new to your field. Remember, research isn’t limited to established subjects; there’s room for exploration in every discipline.

250+ Interesting Topics to Research: Popular Categories

Research topics come in various flavors. Let’s explore some popular categories, which are often engaging for average readers:

Science and Technology

• Artificial intelligence in healthcare.
• Quantum computing advancements.
• Space exploration and colonization.
• Genetic editing and CRISPR technology.
• Cybersecurity in the digital age.
• Augmented and virtual reality applications.
• Climate change and mitigation strategies.
• Sustainable energy sources.
• Internet of Things (IoT) innovations.
• Nanotechnology breakthroughs.
• 3D printing in various industries.
• Biotechnology in medicine.
• Autonomous vehicles and self-driving technology.
• Robotics in everyday life.
• Clean water technology.
• Renewable energy storage solutions.
• Wearable technology and health tracking.
• Green architecture and sustainable design.
• Bioinformatics and genomics.
• Machine learning in data analysis.
• Space tourism development.
• Advancements in quantum mechanics.
• Biometrics and facial recognition.
• Aerospace engineering innovations.
• Ethical considerations in AI development.
• Artificial organs and 3D bioprinting.
• Holography and holographic displays.
• Sustainable agriculture practices.
• Climate modeling and prediction.
• Advancements in battery technology.
• Neurotechnology and brain-computer interfaces.
• Space-based solar power.
• Green transportation options.
• Materials science and superconductors.
• Telemedicine and remote healthcare.
• Cognitive computing and AI ethics.
• Renewable energy policy and regulation.
• The role of 5G in the digital landscape.
• Precision medicine and personalized treatment.
• Advancements in quantum cryptography.
• Drone technology and applications.
• Environmental sensors and monitoring.
• Synthetic biology and bioengineering.
• Smart cities and urban planning.
• Quantum teleportation research.
• AI-powered virtual assistants.
• Space-based mining and resource extraction.
• Advancements in neuroprosthetics.
• Sustainable transportation solutions.
• Blockchain technology and applications.

Social Issues

• Gender inequality in the workplace.
• Racial discrimination and systemic racism.
• Income inequality and wealth gap.
• Climate change and environmental degradation.
• Mental health stigma and access to care.
• Access to quality education.
• Immigration and border control policies.
• Gun control and Second Amendment rights.
• Opioid epidemic and substance abuse.
• Affordable healthcare and insurance.
• LGBTQ+ rights and discrimination.
• Cyberbullying and online harassment.
• Homelessness and affordable housing.
• Police brutality and reform.
• Human trafficking and modern slavery.
• Voter suppression and electoral integrity.
• Access to clean water and sanitation.
• Child labor and exploitation.
• Aging population and healthcare for the elderly.
• Indigenous rights and land disputes.
• Bullying in schools and online.
• Obesity and public health.
• Access to reproductive healthcare.
• Income tax policies and fairness.
• Mental health support for veterans.
• Child abuse and neglect.
• Animal rights and cruelty.
• The digital divide and internet access.
• Youth unemployment and opportunities.
• Religious freedom and tolerance.
• Disability rights and accessibility.
• Affordable childcare and parental leave.
• Food insecurity and hunger.
• Drug policy and legalization.
• Human rights violations in conflict zones.
• Aging infrastructure and public safety.
• Cybersecurity and data privacy.
• Human rights in authoritarian regimes.
• Environmental racism and pollution.
• Discrimination against people with disabilities.
• Income and education disparities in rural areas.
• Freedom of the press and media censorship.
• Bullying and discrimination against the LGBTQ+ youth.
• Access to clean energy and sustainable practices.
• Child marriage and forced unions.
• Mental health in the workplace.
• Domestic violence and abuse.
• Education funding and quality.
• Childhood obesity and healthy habits.
• Poverty and economic development.

History and Culture

• The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire
• Ancient Egyptian Civilization
• The Renaissance Period in Europe
• The Industrial Revolution
• The French Revolution
• The American Civil War
• The Silk Road and Cultural Exchange
• The Mayan Civilization
• The Byzantine Empire
• The Age of Exploration
• World War I: Causes and Consequences
• The Harlem Renaissance
• The Aztec Empire
• Ancient Greece: Democracy and Philosophy
• The Vietnam War
• The Cold War
• The Inca Empire
• The Enlightenment Era
• The Crusades
• The Spanish Inquisition
• The African Slave Trade
• The Suffragette Movement
• The Black Death in Europe
• The Apollo Moon Landing
• The Roaring Twenties
• The Chinese Cultural Revolution
• The Salem Witch Trials
• The Great Wall of China
• The Abolitionist Movement
• The Golden Age of Islam
• The Mesoamerican Ballgame
• The Age of Vikings
• The Ottoman Empire
• The Cultural Impact of the Beatles
• The Space Race
• The Fall of the Berlin Wall
• The History of Hollywood Cinema
• The Renaissance Art and Artists
• The British Empire
• The Age of Samurai in Japan
• The Ancient Indus Valley Civilization
• The Russian Revolution
• The Age of Chivalry
• The History of Native American Tribes
• The Cultural Significance of Greek Mythology
• The Etruscans in Ancient Italy
• The History of African Kingdoms
• The Great Famine in Ireland
• The Age of Invention and Innovation
• The Cultural Impact of Shakespeare’s Works

Business and Economics

• Impact of E-commerce on Traditional Retail
• Global Supply Chain Challenges
• Green Business Practices and Sustainability
• Strategies for Small Business Growth
• Cryptocurrency and Its Economic Implications
• Consumer Behavior in the Digital Age
• The Gig Economy and Its Future
• Economic Consequences of Climate Change
• The Role of AI in Financial Services
• Trade Wars and Their Effects on Global Markets
• Entrepreneurship in Emerging Markets
• Corporate Social Responsibility Trends
• The Economics of Healthcare
• The Impact of Inflation on Savings
• Startup Ecosystems and Innovation Hubs
• Financial Literacy and Education Initiatives
• Income Inequality and Economic Mobility
• The Sharing Economy and Collaborative Consumption
• International Trade Policies
• Behavioral Economics in Marketing
• Economic Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic
• Fintech Innovations and Banking
• Real Estate Market Trends
• Public vs. Private Healthcare Systems
• Market Entry Strategies for New Businesses
• Global Economic Growth Prospects
• The Economics of Education
• Mergers and Acquisitions Trends
• Impact of Tax Reforms on Businesses
• Sustainable Investing and ESG Factors
• Monetary Policy and Interest Rates
• The Future of Work: Remote vs. Office
• Business Ethics and Corporate Governance
• The Economics of Artificial Intelligence
• Stock Market Volatility
• Supply and Demand Dynamics
• Entrepreneurial Finance and Fundraising
• Innovation and Technology Transfer
• Competition in the Digital Marketplace
• Economic Impacts of Aging Populations
• Economic Development in Developing Countries
• Regulatory Challenges in the Financial Sector
• The Economics of Healthcare Insurance
• Corporate Profitability and Market Share
• Energy Economics and Renewable Sources
• Economic Factors in Mergers and Acquisitions
• Financial Crises and Their Aftermath
• Economics of the Entertainment Industry
• Global Economic Trends Post-Pandemic
• Economic Consequences of Cybersecurity Threats
• The Impact of Online Learning
• Strategies for Inclusive Education
• Early Childhood Development
• The Role of Teachers in Student Motivation
• Educational Technology Trends
• Assessment Methods in Education
• The Importance of Multilingual Education
• Special Education Approaches
• Global Education Disparities
• Project-Based Learning
• Critical Thinking in the Classroom
• Educational Leadership
• Homeschooling vs. Traditional Education
• Education and Social Inequality
• Student Mental Health Support
• The Benefits of Student Extracurricular Activities
• The Montessori Approach
• STEM Education
• Educational Policy Reforms
• Education for Sustainable Development
• Educational Psychology
• Learning Disabilities
• Adult Education Programs
• The Role of Arts in Education
• The Flipped Classroom Model
• Educational Gamification
• School Bullying Prevention
• Inclusive Curriculum Design
• The Future of College Admissions
• Early Literacy Development
• Education and Gender Equity
• Teacher Training and Professional Development
• Homeschooling Challenges
• Gifted and Talented Education
• Education for Global Citizenship
• Virtual Reality in Education
• Outdoor and Environmental Education
• Education for Sustainable Agriculture
• Music Education Benefits
• Education and Technological Divide
• Cultural Competence in Education
• Education and Social Emotional Learning
• Personalized Learning
• Educational Equity
• Restorative Justice in Schools
• Study Abroad Programs
• Education for Digital Citizenship
• The Role of Parents in Education
• Vocational Education and Training
• The History of Education Movements

Techniques for Researching Interesting Topics

Once you’ve chosen the interesting topics to research, you’ll need effective techniques to delve deeper into it:

• Online Databases and Journals: Online academic databases like Google Scholar, JSTOR, or PubMed are invaluable resources. They provide access to a vast pool of academic research papers.
• Interviews and Surveys: If your topic involves human perspectives, conducting interviews or surveys can offer firsthand insights. Tools like Jotform Survey Maker , SurveyMonkey or Zoom can be helpful.
• Libraries and Archives: Traditional libraries still hold a treasure trove of information. Whether you visit in person or explore digital archives, libraries can provide a wealth of resources.
• Online Forums and Social Media: Online communities and forums can be excellent sources of information, particularly for trending topics. Sites like Reddit and Quora can connect you with experts and enthusiasts.
• Academic and Expert Sources: Seek out academic articles, books, and experts in your field. Don’t hesitate to reach out to professionals who may be willing to share their expertise.

How to Make Your Research Engaging?

Once you’ve conducted your research, it’s essential to present it in a way that captures the interest of your average reader:

1. Clear and Accessible Language

Avoid jargon and complex terminology. Use simple and straightforward language to ensure your research is accessible to a wide audience.

2. Storytelling and Anecdotes

Weave stories and anecdotes into your research to make it relatable and engaging. Personal narratives and real-life examples can resonate with readers.

3. Visual Aids (Images, Infographics)

Incorporate visuals like images, charts, and infographics to make your research visually appealing and easier to understand.

4. Real-Life Examples and Case Studies

Use real-life examples and case studies to illustrate the practical applications of your research findings. This makes the information tangible and relevant.

5. Relatable Examples from Popular Culture

Relate your research to pop culture, current events, or everyday experiences. This helps readers connect with the material on a personal level.

Examples of Interesting Topics to Research

To provide some inspiration, let’s explore a few intriguing research topics:

The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health

Examine the relationship between social media use and mental health, including topics like social comparison, cyberbullying, and the benefits of online support networks.

The Future of Renewable Energy

Research the latest advancements in renewable energy technologies, such as solar power, wind energy, and the feasibility of a global transition to sustainable energy sources.

The History of Women’s Suffrage

Delve into the historical struggles and milestones of the women’s suffrage movement, both in the United States and around the world.

The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

Investigate the applications of AI in healthcare, from diagnosis algorithms to patient data analysis and the ethical implications of AI in medical practice.

Strategies for Sustainable Business Practices

Examine business sustainability practices , exploring how companies can balance profit and environmental responsibility in an increasingly eco-conscious world.

Challenges you Might Face in Research

While you are looking for interesting topics to research, it’s important to be aware of the challenges:

• Avoiding Bias and Misinformation: Ensure your research is unbiased and based on credible sources. Critical thinking is key to avoiding misinformation.
• Ethical Considerations: Research involving humans or animals should follow ethical guidelines. Always prioritize ethical research practices.
• Data Collection and Analysis: Data collection can be time-consuming and challenging. Make sure to use appropriate data collection methods and robust analysis techniques.
• Staying Updated with Latest Research: Research is an ongoing process. Stay up-to-date with the latest research in your field to ensure the relevance and accuracy of your work.

Research is a gateway to knowledge, innovation, and solutions. Choosing interesting topics to research is the first step in this exciting journey. Whether you’re exploring the depths of science, the intricacies of culture, or the dynamics of business, there’s a captivating research topic waiting for you. 

So, start your exploration, share your discoveries, and keep the flame of curiosity alive. The world is waiting to learn from your research.

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The state of EV charging in America: Harvard research shows chargers 78% reliable and pricing like the ‘Wild West’

Featuring Omar Asensio . By Barbara DeLollis and Glen Justice on June 26, 2024 .

BiGS Actionable Intelligence:

BOSTON — New data-driven research led by a Harvard Business School fellow reveals a significant obstacle to increasing electric vehicle (EV) sales and decreasing carbon emissions in the United States: owners’ deep frustration with the state of charging infrastructure, including unreliability, erratic pricing, and lack of charging locations.

The research proves that frustration extends beyond “range anxiety,” the common fear that EV batteries won't maintain enough charge to reach a destination. Current EV drivers don’t see that as a dominant issue. Instead, many have "charge anxiety," a fear about keeping an EV powered and moving, according to scholar Omar Asensio, the climate fellow at HBS’s Institute for the Study of Business in Global Society (BiGS) who led the study.

Asensio’s research is based on a first-ever examination of more than 1 million charging station reviews by EV drivers across North America, Europe, and Asia written over 10 years. In their reviews, these drivers described how they regularly encounter broken and malfunctioning chargers, erratic and secretive pricing, and even “charging deserts” — entire counties in states such as Washington and Virginia that don’t have a single public charger and that have even lost previously available chargers. EV drivers also routinely watch gas-engine vehicle drivers steal parking spots reserved for EV charging.

Asensio said that listening to the current drivers — owners rather than potential buyers — provides a new window on the state of America’s charging system because drivers are incredibly candid about their experiences.

“It’s different than what any one company or network would want you to believe,” said Asensio, who is also an associate professor at the Georgia Institute of Technology . He added that most charging providers don’t share their data and have few regulatory incentives to do so.

Research: EV chargers less reliable than gas pumps

One of the study’s main findings, discovered using customized artificial intelligence (AI) models trained on EV review data, is that charging stations in the U.S. have an average reliability score of only 78%, meaning that about one in five don’t work. They are, on average, less reliable than regular gas stations, Asensio said. “Imagine if you go to a traditional gas station and two out of 10 times the pumps are out of order,” he said. “Consumers would revolt.”

Elizabeth Bruce, director, Microsoft Innovation and Society, said, "This project is a great example of how increasing access to emerging AI technologies enables researchers to better understand how we can build a more sustainable and equitable society.”

Asensio’s research is timely as U.S. policymakers, entrepreneurs, automakers such as General Motors and Tesla , and others grapple with how to develop the nation’s charging network, who should finance it, and who should maintain it. Because charging influences vehicle sales and the ability to meet emissions targets, it’s a serious question. EV sales have climbed, topping 1 million in 2023, but concerns over batteries and charging could slow that growth.

Today, there are more than 64,000 public EV charging stations in the U.S., according to the U.S. Department of Energy's Alternative Fuels Data Center. Experts say that the nation needs many times more to make a smooth, sustainable, and equitable transition away from gas-powered vehicles — and to minimize the anxiety surrounding EVs.

“I couldn’t even convince my mother to buy an EV recently,” Asensio said. “Her decision wasn’t about the price. She said charging isn’t convenient enough yet to justify learning an entirely new way of driving.”

Reviews give voice to 1 million drivers

An economist and engineer by training, Asensio has been studying EV infrastructure since its infancy in 2010. At that time, the consensus among experts was that the private sector would finance a flourishing charging network, Asensio said. But that didn’t happen at the scale expected, which sparked his curiosity about how the charging market would emerge at points of interest rather than only near highways.

To get answers, Asensio focused on consumer reviews “because they offer objective, unsolicited evidence of peoples’ experience,” he said.

The smartphone apps that EV drivers use to pay for charging sessions allow them to review each station for factors such as functionality and pricing in real-time, much like consumers do on Yelp or Amazon. Asensio and his team, supported by Microsoft and National Science Foundation awards, spent years building models and training AI tools to extract insights and make predictions from drivers leaving these reviews in more than 72 languages.

Until now, this type of data hasn’t existed anywhere, leaving consumers, policymakers, and business leaders — including auto industry executives — in the dark.

Research reveals five facts about EV life

Here are some of the top findings from Asensio’s research about public EV charging stations:

Reliability problems. EV drivers often find broken equipment, making charging unreliable at best and simply not as easy as the old way of topping off a tank of gas. The reason? “No one’s maintaining these stations,” Asensio said. Entrepreneurs are already stepping in with a solution. For example, at Harvard Business School’s climate conference in April 2023, ChargerHelp! Co-founder Evette Ellis explained that her Los Angeles-based technology startup trains people to operate and maintain public charging stations. But until quality control improves nationwide, drivers will likely continue to encounter problems.

Driver clashes. One consumer complaint that surprised Asensio was a mysterious gripe from drivers about “getting ICE’d.” The researchers didn’t know what it meant, so they did some digging and discovered that ICE stands for “internal combustion engine.” EV drivers adopted the term to grouse about gas-fueled car drivers stealing their public EV charger spots for parking.

Price confusion. Drivers are vexed by the pricing they encounter at public charging stations, which are owned by a mix of providers, follow different pricing models, and do not regularly disclose pricing information. The result is often surprises on the road. As one reviewer wrote, “$21.65 to charge!!!!!!! Holy moly!!!! Don’t come here unless you are desperate!!”

Equity questions. Public charging stations are not equally distributed across the U.S., concentrated more heavily in large population centers and wealthy communities and less so in rural areas and smaller cities. The result is that drivers have disparate experiences, well-served in some areas and starved in others. Some parts of the country have become “charging deserts,” with no station at all.

Commercial questions. Commercial drivers in many areas can’t find enough public EV charging stations to reliably charge their cars. Here too, drivers are having very different experiences, well-supplied in some areas and not in others.

‘Wild West’ pricing is a major pain point

The research shows that EV drivers are dissatisfied with EV charging station pricing models, likening the situation to the “Wild West.” Indeed, vehicle charging is both unregulated and non-transparent.

Pricing can vary substantially by facility, level of demand, time of day, and other factors, including the type of charger available. A 45-minute fast charger may have one price, while a traditional charger that takes 3 to 5 hours may have another. Pricing can also change by the hour, based on market conditions.

Unlike traditional gas stations, which often display fuel prices on lighted signs, EV stations rarely advertise what charging will cost. Drivers often arrive without any information on what to expect or how to make comparisons, because there’s no reliable way for consumers to find the most cost-effective places to charge. “The government has a source that lists all locations, but not in real-time,” Asensio said. “You might need five different apps to figure it out.”

The driver reviews in Asensio’s data reflect the irritation caused by the current system. “People are getting frustrated because they don’t feel like they’re getting their money’s worth,” he said.

Why is the charging network so opaque? Research conducted by Asensio and his colleagues in 2021 found that charging station hosts, in the absence of regulation, have no incentive to share data — and they don’t. Station hosts are typically privately owned, highly decentralized, not well-monitored, and have highly varied patterns of demand and pricing.

The lack of transparency prevents researchers — and journalists — from investigating trends. In stark contrast to headlines trumpeting the ups and downs of gas prices, news organizations are not reporting on differential pricing among EV charging stations.

‘Charging deserts’ emerge

With municipal, state, and federal governments all pushing to increase the number of electric vehicles on the road and decrease carbon emissions, experts agree that America will need more charging stations — a lot more.

Looking only at Level 2 chargers, which top off an EV battery in 3 to 5 hours and are the most common type, S&P Global Mobility estimates a need for 1.2 million nationwide by 2027 and almost twice that by 2030. That’s in addition to in-home chargers.

Of course, that assumes robust growth in EV sales. “The transition to a vehicle market dominated by electric vehicles (EVs) will take years to fully develop, but it has begun,” said Ian McIlravey, an analyst at S&P. “With the transition comes a need to evolve the public vehicle charging network, and today's charging infrastructure is insufficient to support a drastic increase in the number of EVs in operation.”

Making matters more difficult, the chargers that do exist are not evenly distributed. Predictably, the places with the most public chargers installed are those with the highest number of registered electric vehicles, including states like California, Florida, and Texas. Yet, even as the federal government invests billions in new charging stations, many of them along major transportation corridors, places are left behind.

Asensio’s research shows that small urban centers and rural areas attract fewer public charging stations, and in some cases, there are “charging deserts” with no facilities at all — and they may not be where you think.

For example, electric vehicles are popular in Washington state, which ranked fourth in number of EV registrations and sixth in number of public charging stations in 2023. Yet Ferry County , an area outside Spokane with about 7,500 residents, where the average commute is 25 minutes and the median income is about $46,000, had only one charging station for several years. And now there are none.

Similarly, Virginia ranked 11th in EV registrations and 13th in public chargers in 2023. There, researchers found Wise County, an area outside Roanoke and Knoxville, Tennessee, with about 3,500 residents and a median income of almost $45,000. The county has an average commute time of 22 minutes, but there are no public charging stations available.

EV charging presents a classic “chicken and egg” situation, begging the question of whether cars or charging facilities must come first. However, a lack of public charging in areas like Ferry County and Wise County makes electric vehicle adoption difficult.

As American drivers debate whether to swap their gas-powered vehicles for EVs and lower emissions, Asensio said research should play a larger role. Policymakers, auto manufacturers, entrepreneurs, and investors need more and better data to build infrastructure where it’s needed, provide reliable charging, and facilitate EV sales.

“How [else] can we make effective decisions about the economics of EVs?” Asensio said.

General Motors: ‘Anxiety around EV charging’

Omar Vargas, head of public policy at General Motors, emphasized the importance of public EV charging infrastructure to driving EV adoption during an interview with The BiGS Fix at one of BiGS’ business leadership roundtables in Northern Virginia.

“We're looking at what are the best places to install an EV charging station for a community,” Vargas said. “The anxiety around EV charging is an inhibitor to EV adoption.”

Beyond the public investment in rolling out charging infrastructure, GM (whose brands include Chevrolet and Cadillac) has committed $750 million in private capital to the development of EV charging stations. It is partnering with car dealerships and other companies. For instance, GM is testing charging stations at Flying J rest stops.

GM, which reported full-year revenue of $171.8 billion for 2023 , also is joining community partnership efforts that are being formed to secure federal dollars through state and local governments. “We're helping that kind of planning, and we're pretty confident that in the next couple of years, we're going to have a vigorous EV charging network in the United States,” Vargas said.

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15 Steps to Good Research

• Define and articulate a research question (formulate a research hypothesis). How to Write a Thesis Statement (Indiana University)
• Identify possible sources of information in many types and formats. Georgetown University Library's Research & Course Guides
• Judge the scope of the project.
• Reevaluate the research question based on the nature and extent of information available and the parameters of the research project.
• Select the most appropriate investigative methods (surveys, interviews, experiments) and research tools (periodical indexes, databases, websites).
• Plan the research project. Writing Anxiety (UNC-Chapel Hill) Strategies for Academic Writing (SUNY Empire State College)
• Retrieve information using a variety of methods (draw on a repertoire of skills).
• Refine the search strategy as necessary.
• Write and organize useful notes and keep track of sources. Taking Notes from Research Reading (University of Toronto) Use a citation manager: Zotero or Refworks
• Evaluate sources using appropriate criteria. Evaluating Internet Sources
• Synthesize, analyze and integrate information sources and prior knowledge. Georgetown University Writing Center
• Revise hypothesis as necessary.
• Use information effectively for a specific purpose.
• Understand such issues as plagiarism, ownership of information (implications of copyright to some extent), and costs of information. Georgetown University Honor Council Copyright Basics (Purdue University) How to Recognize Plagiarism: Tutorials and Tests from Indiana University
• Cite properly and give credit for sources of ideas. MLA Bibliographic Form (7th edition, 2009) MLA Bibliographic Form (8th edition, 2016) Turabian Bibliographic Form: Footnote/Endnote Turabian Bibliographic Form: Parenthetical Reference Use a citation manager: Zotero or Refworks

Adapted from the Association of Colleges and Research Libraries "Objectives for Information Literacy Instruction" , which are more complete and include outcomes. See also the broader "Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education."

GM Research & Development

GM’s Research & Development team’s mission is to drive innovation for the benefit of its customers through the invention and commercialization of high-impact technologies.

Originally founded in 1920 by Charles “Boss” Kettering, GM’s Research & Development team represented the world’s first automotive research organization, helping to accelerate GM’s evolution into a leading transportation technology company.

Key Research Focus Areas

Led by GM’s Chief Technology Officer, the R&D organization enables and accelerates the development and commercialization of advanced technology throughout GM’s portfolio of products and connected service offerings.

While the requirements and expectations of future mobility evolve, GM’s R&D team continues to play a significant role in helping to make our vision a reality of a world with zero crashes, zero emissions, and zero congestion.

Each year, GM researchers publish a variety of papers, each representing a new potential technological breakthrough or innovation spanning across key focus areas:

Key Research Focus Area 1: Battery Materials and Systems

GM Research and Development work relating to Materials and Methods, Battery Cell and Architecture Designs, and Process and Quality.

GM HERITAGE INITIATIVES

Preserving the GM Heritage

Photo and Video Archival

Photography, motion picture film, video and digital media spanning from the 19th Century to the present. These one-of-a-kind visual works chronicle the products, workforce, fashion, culture and events of the day.

• 8M+ photographic images
• 250,000+ video masters, motion picture films
• TV Advertisements
• Promotional films
• Running footage

Vehicle Information Services

• Historical brochures
• Vehicle information kits, build sheets, dealer invoices
• Specs, RPO/Engine codes, VIN decoding
• Fisher body trim tags, service parts indetification labels
• Historical executive biographies

Sport Your GM Heritage

GM Company Store

Are you looking for a slick GM t-shirt, hat, or cozy sweater? How about a travel mug for your commute? Or a more rare find, like a one of a kind necklace made from recycled auto parts, the GM Company Store has some incredible finds. Find your favorite General Motors swag at the GM Company Store.

GM Photo Store

Utilizing the image resources of the GM Media Archive, researchers, archivists and product experts have selected fascinating classic and contemporary images from the Archive's collection, enabling automotive enthusiasts to view and purchase high-quality GM automotive photography.

Key Research Focus Area 2: Energy and Propulsion Systems

GM Research and Development work relating to Electrification Systems, and Controls.

Key Research Focus Area 3: Materials and Manufacturing Systems

GM Research and Development work relating to Battery Manufacturing, Next Generation Fabrication & Assembly, Lightweight Material Systems & Processing, and Sustainable Materials & Processing.

Key Research Focus Area 4: Connected Vehicle Experience

GM Research and Development work relating to Occupant Safety & Comfort, Connectivity, Information Display, Accessibility, and Biosensing.

Key Research Focus Area 5: Software Defined Vehicle Technology

GM Research and Development work relating to AV and ADAS Technologies, Electrical and Software Architecture, and Chassis Controls.

GM’s R&D Throughout the Years

Celebrating 100 years of research and development innovation.

By Matt Tsien

Throughout history, research and innovation have driven humanity forward in remarkable ways, allowing us to solve some of the world’s most vexing challenges and satisfying human curiosity along the way. The thrill of discovery and innovation is what propels us at General Motors, not just because we want to be “the first” or “the only,” but because we recognize that technology must continue to advance to improve individual lives.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the world experienced firsthand the importance of ingenuity and innovation; companies and individuals alike relied on these traits to survive and thrive. While researchers continue to race to develop a vaccine for this deadly virus, brick-and-mortar businesses have discovered how to prosper online, influencers are throwing virtual events attracting millions, and companies like GM are retooling vehicle manufacturing facilities for  mask and ventilator production.

Innovating to Change the World: The Robonaut 2 and Machines for the Salk Polio Vaccine

For the past 100 years, GM’s R&D team has played a decisive role in how our company acts with resilience, takes risks and leverages resources to drive meaningful change – even outside of our industry. Take the Centri-Filmer for example. This vaccine purifying machine was developed in the 1950s based on the R&D team’s bearing and balancing expertise. Ultimately, this technology enabled large-scale manufacturing of critical vaccines such as the Salk polio vaccine. In the early 2000s, our researchers  worked closely with NASA scientists to develop Robonaut 2 for the International Space Station, as well as the RoboGlove which is capable of being used by our team members in manufacturing facilities.

Transforming Mobility Through Technology and Innovation

Of course, through the years our R&D team has also stayed true to its mission, developing transformative advanced vehicle technologies for our customers. Super Cruise 1  gave drivers the ability to experience true hands-free driving on compatible highways. The CarbonPro composite pickup bed provided truck lovers with a compartment featuring unprecedented dent, scratch and corrosion resistance. And OnStar Proactive Alerts delivered customers advanced notice of potential vehicle problems, turning what was an unexpected and serious repair into routine maintenance.

And while we have 100 years of incredible history behind us, GM R&D remains focused on preparing for the next century of innovation. We clearly see the path toward an all-electric future for our company and for the industry. Our team’s pioneering work developing a 450-volt silver-zinc battery pack for the 1966 Electrovair II helped pave the way for the Chevrolet Volt, the Chevrolet Bolt EV and soon, the GMC HUMMER EV pickup and SUV, the Cadillac LYRIQ, and the Chevrolet Silverado electric pickup truck.

Through electrification, we see a cleaner, more sustainable planet. We see the advancement of artificial intelligence and machine learning leading us to self-driving vehicles. And we see a safer world for all, powered by our ability to deploy our innovations at scale.

DISCLAIMERS:

1 Even while using the Super Cruise driver assistance feature, always pay attention while driving and do not use a hand-held device. Visit cadillacsupercruise.com for compatible highways and more information. Requires active OnStar plan, active Wi-Fi Hotspot, working electrical system, cell reception and GPS signal

2 Safety or driver assistance features are no substitute for the driver's responsibility to operate the vehicle in a safe manner.  The driver should remain attentive to traffic, surroundings and road conditions at all times.  Visibility, weather, and road conditions may affect feature performance. Read the vehicle's owner's manual for more important feature limitations and information.

3 Diagnostic capabilities vary by model and plan. Message and data rates may apply. Requires contact method on file and enrollment to receive alerts. Not all issues will deliver alerts. See onstar.com for details and limitations.

4 Your actual range will vary based on several factors, including temperature, terrain, battery age and how you use and maintain your vehicle.

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Research: How Family Motivates People to Do Their Best Work

• Lauren C. Howe
• Jochen I. Menges

Work and family are often seen as competing for an employee’s time and energy — but that’s the wrong way to think about it.

Family is one of the most important things in most people’s lives, across cultures and geographies. Yet, the idea that family can be motivational at work has been overlooked. Instead, in the past, family has been mostly seen as competing with work for an employee’s finite resources, like their time and energy. A large body of research on work-family conflict drew on this notion and illustrated how work and family domains create conflicting demands and interfere with one another. And yet, there’s another growing body of research that finds that family can play a role in motivation at work, boosting employees’ performance and inspiring them to do their best. This article focuses on that body of research, and discusses how organizations that embrace family at work stand to benefit from attracting and retaining employees who are highly motivated and engaged.

Tennis star Serena Williams recently unveiled her next endeavor after leaving the courts behind: her new brand, Wyn Beauty. Like the decision to retire from tennis to focus on family, Williams’ choice to focus on beauty is a family affair. As Williams put it: “Motherhood has allowed me to look at beauty through the eyes of my daughter, Olympia. We’re always experimenting with makeup together, and I think about how these moments will be part of both of our beauty journeys… I also hope my daughters see how many different passions I have — from tennis to beauty — and learn that they can lead dynamic careers and lives across their many interests.”

• Lauren C. Howe is an Associate Professor in Management at the University of Zurich. As a member of the Center for Leadership in the Future of Work , she focuses on how human aspects, such as mindsets, socioemotional skills, and social relationships play a role in the changing world of work.
• Jochen I. Menges is a Professor of Leadership and Human Resource Management at the University of Zurich, the Director of the Center for Leadership in the Future of Work, and a co-founder of the Global HR Valley®, a growing people innovation ecosystem. He studies how people can feel and do their best at work, today and tomorrow. Jochen is also a faculty member at Cambridge Judge Business School.

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

• Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
• Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

• Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

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As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

• Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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In-Person Time

In the Changing Role of the Office, It’s All about Moments That Matter

New research highlights three key times when bringing employees and teams together in person creates lasting connection

Illustration by Zara Picken

T Three years into flexible work, we’re entering a new phase: structured flexible work. While every organization approaches flexibility differently, leaders are looking to establish norms and best practices with their employees, particularly around when—and how much—to come into the office. At Microsoft, our structured flexible work model empowers individuals and teams to intentionally decide what works for them, within company and team guidelines. “We enable managers and employees to do what they believe is best for each individual’s unique needs, as well as each team’s success,” says Karen Kocher, global general manager, Future of Work, Workforce of the Future, and talent & learning experiences at Microsoft. Study after study shows that employees want the best of both worlds—flexible work and in-person connection. Back in 2021, the Work Trend Index uncovered what we call the hybrid paradox: over 70% of workers wanted flexible work to stay, and over 65% were craving more in-person time with their teams. While the amount of flexibility might differ by role—data center employees or hardware engineers might spend more time on-site, for example—we’ve seen this trend persist in both our external research and in our Microsoft employee surveys. How can leaders bring structure to flexible work and help employees get the in-person connection they crave? New research shows it’s not about the number of days people are in the office, it’s about creating moments that matter. hree years into flexible work, we’re entering a new phase: structured flexible work. While every organization approaches flexibility differently, leaders are looking to establish norms and best practices with their employees, particularly around when—and how much—to come into the office. At Microsoft, our structured flexible work model empowers individuals and teams to intentionally decide what works for them, within company and team guidelines. “We enable managers and employees to do what they believe is best for each individual’s unique needs, as well as each team’s success,” says Karen Kocher, global general manager, Future of Work, Workforce of the Future, and talent & learning experiences at Microsoft. Study after study shows that employees want the best of both worlds—flexible work and in-person connection. Back in 2021, the Work Trend Index uncovered what we call the hybrid paradox: over 70% of workers wanted flexible work to stay, and over 65% were craving more in-person time with their teams. While the amount of flexibility might differ by role—data center employees or hardware engineers might spend more time on-site, for example—we’ve seen this trend persist in both our external research and in our Microsoft employee surveys. How can leaders bring structure to flexible work and help employees get the in-person connection they crave? New research shows it’s not about the number of days people are in the office, it’s about creating moments that matter.

Our internal data points to three specific moments when in-person time is most beneficial:

Strengthening team cohesion

Onboarding to a new role, team, or company

Kicking off a project

1. Strengthening team cohesion

There’s no going back to 2019. Over the past four years, organizations have become increasingly distributed, and for many of them, a large-scale return to the office is no longer a feasible way to create meaningful connections between individuals and teams. This is certainly true of Microsoft. “We’re not the same company that we were prior to the pandemic,” says Dawn Klinghoffer, head of people analytics at Microsoft. Back then, 61% of teams at the company were all in the same location; today that number is 27%. And research shows that 70% of managers at Fortune 100 companies have at least one remote team member.

Fewer Teams Are Fully Co-Located Than in 2020

New research shows that teams are more geographically dispersed than before the pandemic, and fewer teammates all live within the same city.*

And employees say that flexibility is going well: In our latest Microsoft employee engagement survey, 92% of our employees say they believe the company values flexibility and allows them to work in a way that works best for them. An even higher 93% are confident in their ability to work together as a team, regardless of location. At the same time, the survey shows people are craving more connection. When we looked at the comments from employees who did not rate their quality of connection with co-workers as favorable (only neutral or unfavorable), 29% of those comments said that remote work has made it difficult to create meaningful connections and relationships. We know that people come into an office for each other—whether it’s once a week or once a year—and in the same engagement survey, employees made it clear they’re looking for time together spent connecting, not just co-working. When asked what in-person activities Microsoft should offer to support teams’ success, 37% of comments were about social and team-building activities—the number one theme overall.

Just ask Maryleen Emeric, who organized a recent team week for the Microsoft Modern Work and Business Applications group. (Team week brings together far-flung colleagues who would otherwise rarely see each other.) And after a long day of meetings and workshops during team week, she brought down the house with a karaoke cover of Bonnie Tyler’s “Total Eclipse of the Heart.” “Those sorts of social connections are not something that you can create over a screen,” she says. “Allowing people to get to know each other and find those common interests outside of work—I don’t think that can happen if you don’t bring people together once in a while.”

We see this sentiment in our external surveys too. According to the September 2022 Work Trend Index report , about 85% of people were motivated to go into the office for socializing with co-workers; just as many also said they’d be motivated by a desire to rebuild team bonds.

“You have to think of your social capital like a battery,” Emeric says. “The longer you go without having in-person interaction, the lower the charge gets on your battery. These moments that matter—like a team week—allow us to recharge the battery.” In fact, Microsoft employees who spent six days or more a month in the office with their team had a slightly higher thriving score than those who did not spend any time in the office. (Thriving is our outcome for engagement at Microsoft, defined by a combination of three tenets: being “ empowered and energized to do meaningful work .”) While even more days together raises scores for feeling energized and for alignment on goals, it also starts to push down scores for flexibility and satisfaction.

In-person time can also remind the individual employee of the role they play in the success of the broader team and the organization. Team week culminated in an “ask me anything” style conversation with organization leader Jared Spataro, CVP of Modern Work & Business Applications, during which he spoke openly about the company’s vigorous focus on AI. “It made people feel very connected to our mission, very connected to our goals, and very connected to our culture,” Emeric says. “It got people very energized. And it felt like people were recommitting to the cause. Like, ‘Yeah, we’re all in.’” We know from the Work Trend Index report that high-quality connections pay off for both people and businesses: Employees who have positive relationships with their immediate team members report better wellbeing than those with poor relationships. They also report higher productivity, and are less likely to change employers in the year ahead. Strengthening networks outside of the immediate team matters, too, according to the Work Trend Index. Employees with positive relationships beyond their immediate team members say they’re more satisfied with their employer, more fulfilled by work, and have a more positive outlook on workplace stress than those with weak organizational networks. Or, in the immortal words of Ms. Bonnie Tyler: “ Together we can take it to the end of the line …”

2. Onboarding to a new role, team, or company

Our research showed that when starting a new role—whether at a new company or in an internal switch—meeting your manager or onboarding buddy in person makes certain things easier. Compared with employees who didn’t meet their managers in person within the first 90 days, employees who did were more likely to seek feedback, be asked for input by their team, build strong relationships with colleagues, feel supported when discussing tough issues with their manager, and get effective coaching and feedback. (However, there are no differences in how these new hires feel about other outcomes in the survey, including driving impact, finding the support they need, being supported by their colleagues and feeling included, knowing their stakeholders, and getting to know the culture.) Meeting your onboarding “buddy”—a teammate assigned to support your transition to the new team—in person within 90 days makes a difference too. Those who did were more likely to seek feedback, feel included, feel trusted by their team, and report they had clarity about how to drive impact—and have the necessary tools to do so. (But meeting their onboarding buddy in person did not meaningfully affect new hires’ scores in other areas, such as finding the support they need, understanding their organization’s vision, or knowing their stakeholders.) The quicker that new hires develop trust with their managers and teammates, the quicker they can become productive contributors and collaborators with the team and the company. “Understanding the priorities and feeling a sense of belonging is just really a goodness for both the organization and the individual,” Kocher says.

Meeting In Person Has Clear Benefits for New Hires

For new employees, connecting with their manager or onboarding “buddy“ in person has a measurable short-term effect on how well they integrate with their new teams.

Source: Onboarding Research Survey at 90 Days, Microsoft, Sept. 7 to Dec. 31, 2022

Stretches of in-person training also help new hires understand their tasks and priorities with less friction. They can receive close guidance and immediate feedback, with easy access to assistance, clarification, and tacit knowledge. “It helps you get more quickly up to speed,” Kocher says. “And when you can deliver at your maximum capacity much more quickly, it helps you become more intrinsically motivated and energized.” Another internal survey showed that early-in-career employees felt slightly more energized when they worked regularly in the same building with their team members. In-person time also gives employees the opportunity to observe company norms and team dynamics—subtleties that are difficult to pick up on virtually and that can be especially important for early-in-career employees. All that said, as Klinghoffer notes, once you’ve onboarded, in-person one-on-one meetings are not necessarily mission critical, which is good news for distributed teams. It’s a balance: “Meeting one’s manager early on is a moment that matters and has some great outcomes, but down the road, you don’t necessarily have to be in person regularly.”

3. Kicking off a project

In-person time is useful in the earliest stages of a project life cycle for the same reason it’s useful during the onboarding process: getting people on the same page. When respondents of our employee engagement survey shared specific examples of moments that matter to be in person for, they included initial customer engagements and planning sessions—one respondent even said it “would be a significant boost to team collaboration, culture, and execution.” The Microsoft 365 Copilot project kickoff , which assembled teams from diverse departments for the company’s most ambitious project in a decade, happened in person, for example. Physical proximity simply helps people feel like their colleagues understand them. “Everyone likes to feel heard by others,” Kocher says. “And it’s easier to feel heard when you’re right next to somebody having a conversation.” With mutual trust and alignment in place, the creative juices can start flowing. In-person time helps spark innovation and outside-the-box thinking. In fact, studies show that while it’s easiest to choose the best idea virtually, in-person pairs generated 18% more creative ideas and 14% more ideas overall compared with virtual pairs in the same hour—so you can have better choices to pick from. “If you want the best and most ideas, you do it in person,” Kocher says. “When you’re in a big room with a lot of people, your mind perceives an expansion. Compare that to when you’re at a computer and you’re talking to people online: your mind goes very narrow very quickly.” Aside from boosting brainstorming power, being together in person at the beginning of a project allows a team to more efficiently share tacit knowledge, get clarity, establish individual roles, and coordinate their efforts. “Get to know people, build the trust, have some initial brainstorming sessions,” Klinghoffer says. “Then, once you’ve built that social capital, go back to your home offices or separate locations and keep on moving the project forward.”

Key Takeaway

While flexible work looks different for every organization, it’s clear that it’s here to stay. As organizations embrace this transformative model, they unlock their capacity to increase productivity, enhance employee satisfaction, and create a more inclusive workforce. Remote work has benefits, and in-person time does too. Every team is different, but one thing is clear: finding this balance must be approached with intentionality. Rather than considering the office as a one-size-fits-all solution, teams should consider the type of work they do and determine key points in time or reasons to gather in person. What’s more, the benefits of in-person time—whether it’s for a weeklong on-site or a day here and there—should be weighed against things like travel and expenses, commuting, and creating space for deep work. As Klinghoffer says, “Ask yourself and your team: What are the moments that matter for us?”

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How to Get Hybrid Meetings Right

3 Ways Hybrid Collaboration Can Bridge Both Space and Time

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• All of Oklahoma State University

Headlines News and Media

Co-fermentation process making significant strides in biofuel research  .

Monday, July 1, 2024

Media Contact: Tanner Holubar | Communications Specialist | 405-744-2065 | [email protected]

Researchers in the College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology at Oklahoma State University continue to refine a co-fermentation process resulting in the production of butanol, a biofuel made from renewable resources that can be converted into jet fuel.  

OSU received a patent in November 2021 for a co-fermentation process, developed by Dr. Hasan Atiyeh, professor of biosystems and agricultural engineering .    

In this process, sugars are converted into alcohols, organic acids and ketones through fermentation . Gas-fermenting bacteria are introduced to capture carbon dioxide, which is   also fermented to increase biofuel production. This co-fermentation method reduces environmental impact compared to fossil-fuel based butanol.  

The method involves adding natural bacteria to ferment sugars derived from plant materials. It combines sugar-fermenting and gas-fermenting bacteria, capturing carbon dioxide, which is also fermented to create more biofuels.  

Atiyeh said traditional fuel and chemical production from fossil fuels results in significant environmental impacts, producing greenhouse gas emissions and leading to high levels of carbon dioxide and other pollutants. Extraction and processing of fossil fuels contribute to soil, water and air pollution, and habitat destruction.  Over the past two years, significant advancements have been made in the co-fermentation process.    

"We've successfully enhanced co-fermentation bacteria using CRISPR-based gene editing, improving their tolerance to inhibitory compounds in biomass,” Atiyeh said. “Our optimized co-fermentation process now converts both sugars and carbon dioxide into biofuels, increasing product yields and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, we've demonstrated the cost-effectiveness of using corn steep liquor as a medium, further improving the feasibility of large-scale biofuel production."   

  Since receiving the patent, Atiyeh noted substantial progress in research. Microbial strains have been optimized using “CRISPR-based gene editing to enhance butanol production and tolerance to inhibitory compounds.”    

  “We have integrated in situ separation process to recover butanol during the co-fermentation process. We have also tested the ability of three new acetogens to convert carbon dioxide into C2 to C6 alcohols and fatty acids,” Atiyeh said.    

  Although the research has not been marketed to industries yet, Atiyeh emphasized that once the technology is fully developed, it could greatly benefit industries to by increasing biofuel production, reducing carbon emissions and promoting a circular economy.    

CEAT students have been involved with this research through active participation in lab experiments, data collection and the development of the co-fermentation process.    

Atiyeh said students not only gain academic enrichment , but also have opportunities to co-author publications and present findings at conferences, helping them establish a presence in the scientific community.    

“This hands-on experience not only prepares students for future careers in biotechnology and renewable energy, but it also empowers them to drive economic growth and promote environmental sustainability both locally and globally,” Atiyeh said.    

Research on producing butanol from renewable resources, especially lignocellulosic (or plant-based) biomass, is highly important when trying to address global challenges related to aviation fuel emissions and sustainability.    

Butanol offers numerous advantages over ethanol, including higher energy density and compatibility with existing fuel infrastructure. Atiyeh said butanol’s potential conversion into sustainable jet fuel through hydrogenation underscores “its pivotal role in reducing the aviation sector’s carbon footprint, which currently contributes significantly to global carbon dioxide emissions.”    

There are several challenges to the widespread adoption of butanol, such as the high cost of treatment biomass and , low butanol yield during fermentation. Atiyeh said addressing these challenges is critical in developing sustainable biorefineries capable of meeting the rising demand of biofuels.    

    “Current research efforts, such as the novel co-fermentation process developed by my team, marks a major step forward,” Atiyeh said. “By leveraging CRISPR-based gene editing and optimizing fermentation processes, my team has achieved enhanced efficiency and yield in butanol production from sugars and carbon dioxide derived from biomass. This innovative approach not only increase production but also cuts down on carbon dioxide emissions, highlighting its potential to revolutionize the biofuel industry.”    

Read more about Dr. Atiyeh's research. 

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Scientists in Japan Give Robots a Fleshy Face and a Smile

Researchers at the University of Tokyo published findings on a method of attaching artificial skin to robot faces to protect machinery and mimic human expressiveness.

By Emily Schmall

Engineers in Japan are trying to get robots to imitate that particularly human expression — the smile.

They have created a face mask from human skin cells and attached it to robots with a novel technique that conceals the binding and is flexible enough to turn down into a grimace or up into a squishy smile.

The effect is something between Hannibal Lecter’s terrifying mask and the Claymation figure Gumby.

But scientists say the prototypes pave the way for more sophisticated robots, with an outward layer both elastic and durable enough to protect the machine while making it appear more human.

Beyond expressiveness, the “skin equivalent,” as the researchers call it, which is made from living skin cells in a lab, can scar and burn and also self-heal, according to a study published June 25 in the journal Cell Reports Physical Science.

“Human-like faces and expressions improve communication and empathy in human-robot interactions, making robots more effective in health care, service and companionship roles,” Shoji Takeuchi, a professor at the University of Tokyo and the study’s lead researcher, said in an email.

The research comes as robots are becoming more ubiquitous on factory floors.

There were 3.9 million industrial robots working on auto and electronics assembly lines and other work settings in 2022, according to the International Federation of Robotics.

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• Research into trans medicine has been manipulated

Court documents offer a window into how this happens

I N APRIL HILARY CASS , a British paediatrician, published her review of gender-identity services for children and young people, commissioned by NHS England. It cast doubt on the evidence base for youth gender medicine. This prompted the World Professional Association for Transgender Health ( WPATH ), the leading professional organisation for the doctors and practitioners who provide services to trans people, to release a blistering rejoinder. WPATH said that its own guidelines were sturdier, in part because they were “based on far more systematic reviews”.

Systematic reviews should evaluate the evidence for a given medical question in a careful, rigorous manner. Such efforts are particularly important at the moment, given the feverish state of the American debate on youth gender medicine, which is soon to culminate in a Supreme Court case challenging a ban in Tennessee. The case turns, in part, on questions of evidence and expert authority.

Explore more

This article appeared in the United States section of the print edition under the headline “Marking their own homework”

United States June 29th 2024

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