scholar research work

Explore millions of high-quality primary sources and images from around the world, including artworks, maps, photographs, and more.

Explore migration issues through a variety of media types

• Part of The Streets are Talking: Public Forms of Creative Expression from Around the World
• Part of The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Winter 2020)
• Part of Cato Institute (Aug. 3, 2021)
• Part of University of California Press
• Part of Open: Smithsonian National Museum of African American History & Culture
• Part of Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Winter 2012)
• Part of R Street Institute (Nov. 1, 2020)
• Part of Leuven University Press
• Part of UN Secretary-General Papers: Ban Ki-moon (2007-2016)
• Part of Perspectives on Terrorism, Vol. 12, No. 4 (August 2018)
• Part of Leveraging Lives: Serbia and Illegal Tunisian Migration to Europe, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Mar. 1, 2023)
• Part of UCL Press

Harness the power of visual materials—explore more than 3 million images now on JSTOR.

Enhance your scholarly research with underground newspapers, magazines, and journals.

Explore collections in the arts, sciences, and literature from the world’s leading museums, archives, and scholars.

Understanding Scholarly/Academic Research

• What is Scholarly/Academic Research?
• Peer Review & Relevance
• Research Methodology
• Evaluating Online Sources
• What are Seminal Works?
• Impact Metrics

Librarian Team

[email protected]

Scholarly research articles or journals share these characteristics: 

• scholarly works are considered unbiased within their discipline and are backed up with evidence
• are published in academic, scholarly, scientific or empirical journals
• reports on original research  in a specific academic fields
• results are generalizable across populations
• use a research methodology that is replicable
• their authors are most often experts in the field and have their credentials listed

The structure of a scholarly article includes:

• a hypothesis: a proposed question
• a methods section
• conclusions
• suggestions for further research
• a citation reference list

All content in the library is credible, but not all of it is scholarly

These content formats are NOT scholarly

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• Last Updated: Apr 18, 2024 10:36 PM
• URL: https://libguides.americansentinel.edu/c.php?g=963648

• Brandeis Library
• Research Guides
• Evaluating Online Information
• Scholarly Works

Introduction

Things to consider, is it "scholarly", peer review, searching for peer reviewed articles, tips and tricks.

• Websites and Social Media

You're probably doing most of your academic research online, in library databases or on the open web. (Even if not, the tips on this page should still be useful to you.) That's great! But you still need to be careful that you're getting good sources, especially if you're on the open web. Luckily, the internet also makes it easier to evaluate the sources you find. Read on for some specific pointers...

• ​ How current should a scholarly resource be? Use what you already know about your field and topic. Is it a rapidly changing field, like many sciences? Have there been major advances or shifts since the resource was published? 
• Credentials aren't everything, but they're a good clue that an author is qualified to write/speak on a topic. Sometimes articles include a brief profile of the author; sometimes you have to look them up yourself. 
• If it's peer reviewed, you already know that experts in the field gave their seal of approval. (See below for more on peer review.) But even experts can get things wrong! If the resource makes a surprising or extreme claim, it's good to check for reviews or rebuttals.
• Evaluating Articles
• Evaluating Books

What does "scholarly" mean? It generally refers to work that's the result of formal research, written by scholars in the field for other scholars. Scholarly works are usually peer-reviewed (see the box below), although the process works a little differently for books than for articles in journals. Scholarly works cite their sources thoroughly and can include bibliographies or lists of works cited, depending on the citation style used. 

Magazines and scholarly journals are different , although they sometimes cover similar ground. The main differences: peer review and citing sources!   This chart from NC State University Libraries will help you distinguish among them. 

"Grey literature" refers to literature produced by government, academia, business, and industry outside of the commercial publishing process - things like government agency reports, NGO whitepapers, dissertations, and corporate annual reports. It can involve meticulous research, but doesn't go through the same editing and peer review process that, say, journal articles do. You can still evaluate it like other sources, though! If after evaluating a piece of grey lit, you'd like to use it in your work, (1) ask your professor if they consider it an acceptable source and/or (2) check the citations for leads on other resources.

What's peer review? In a nutshell, experts in a field check an article that's been submitted for publication to see if it meets scholarly standards. Watch this video for a 3-minute explanation of how it works.  (Video produced by  NC State University Libraries .)

[ Audio Transcript ]

View the slideshow below for tips on searching for peer-reviewed articles in OneSearch and in other major databases. (Click on the arrow on the side to get to the next slide.)

In OneSearch, run your search then click on the "Peer-Reviewed Journals" link on the left side to see only results from peer-reviewed journals. 

EBSCO Databases

In an EBSCOhost database like Academic Search Premier, check the box on the left labeled "Scholarly (Peer-Reviewed) Journals".

Proquest Databases (before searching)

In a ProQuest database, you can check the box marked "Peer reviewed" before you run your search to get only peer reviewed resources back. 

Proquest Databases (after searching)

Another option when searching ProQuest databases: run your search first, then use the "Peer reviewed" link on the side to filter for peer reviewed articles. 

To find out more about a journal:  If you're in one of the library's databases, you can usually click on the journal's name when you're viewing an article to learn more, including whether it's peer reviewed. For more, look through  our research guide on Evaluating Journals .

To find out more about what other scholars think of a book:  If you're looking at a book, chances are it's been reviewed. You can use the Book Review Index Plus database to locate reviews - search for the title and/or author, then click "GET IT" under the result(s) you're interested in to get the full text of the review. 

...or an article: With an article, looking at other works that have cited it can be helpful. Try searching for your article's title in  OneSearch , then clicking on "Cited by" in the lower right corner of the result. You can skim the resources that come up or Ctrl-F within them for your article's name to see if they're citing your article approvingly or negatively. If your article doesn't come up in OneSearch, try that process on Google Scholar instead.

When looking for peer reviewed articles , remember that they're also sometimes called "peer refereed" or just "scholarly" as synonyms.

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• Last Updated: Aug 31, 2023 11:08 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.brandeis.edu/evaluatinginfo

• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
• Faculty of Arts & Sciences Libraries

A Scholar's Guide to Google

• Google Scholar
• Google Books

Using Google Scholar

Google Scholar is a special version of Google specially designed for searching scholarly literature. It covers peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, preprints, abstracts and technical reports from all broad areas of research.

A Harvard ID and PIN are required for Google Scholar in order to access the full text of books, journal articles, etc. provided by licensed resources to which Harvard subscribes. Indviduals outside of Harvard may access Google Scholar directly at http://scholar.google.com/ , but they will not have access to the full text of articles provided by Harvard Library E-Resources .

Browsing Search Results

The following screenshots illustrate some of the features that accompany individual records in Google Scholar's results lists.

Find It@Harvard – Locates an electronic version of the work (when available) through Harvard's subscription library resources. If no electronic full text is available, a link to the appropriate HOLLIS Catalog record is provided for alternative formats.

Group of – Finds other articles included in this group of scholarly works, possibly preliminary, which you may be able to access. Examples include preprints, abstracts, conference papers or other adaptations.

Cited By – Identifies other papers that have cited articles in the group.

Related Articles - The list of related articles is ranked primarily by how similar these articles are to the original result, but also takes into account the relevance of each paper. Finding sets of related papers and books is often a great way for novices to get acquainted with a topic.

Cached - The "Cached" link is the snapshot that Google took of the page when they crawled the web. The page may have changed since that time and the cached page may reference images which are no longer available.

Web Search – Searches for information on the Web about this work using the Google search engine.

BL Direct – Purchase the full text of the article through the British Library. Once transferred into BL Direct, users can also link to the full collection of The British Library document supply content. Prices for the service are expressed in British pounds. Abstracts for some documents are provided.

The Advanced Search feature in Google Scholar allows researchers to limit their query to particular authors, publications, dates, and subject areas.  

Page Last Reviewed: February 25, 2008

• << Previous: Google Books
• Last Updated: Jun 8, 2017 1:21 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/googleguide

Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

• Corrections

Search Help

Get the most out of Google Scholar with some helpful tips on searches, email alerts, citation export, and more.

Finding recent papers

Your search results are normally sorted by relevance, not by date. To find newer articles, try the following options in the left sidebar:

• click "Since Year" to show only recently published papers, sorted by relevance;
• click "Sort by date" to show just the new additions, sorted by date;
• click the envelope icon to have new results periodically delivered by email.

Locating the full text of an article

Abstracts are freely available for most of the articles. Alas, reading the entire article may require a subscription. Here're a few things to try:

• click a library link, e.g., "FindIt@Harvard", to the right of the search result;
• click a link labeled [PDF] to the right of the search result;
• click "All versions" under the search result and check out the alternative sources;
• click "Related articles" or "Cited by" under the search result to explore similar articles.

If you're affiliated with a university, but don't see links such as "FindIt@Harvard", please check with your local library about the best way to access their online subscriptions. You may need to do search from a computer on campus, or to configure your browser to use a library proxy.

Getting better answers

If you're new to the subject, it may be helpful to pick up the terminology from secondary sources. E.g., a Wikipedia article for "overweight" might suggest a Scholar search for "pediatric hyperalimentation".

If the search results are too specific for your needs, check out what they're citing in their "References" sections. Referenced works are often more general in nature.

Similarly, if the search results are too basic for you, click "Cited by" to see newer papers that referenced them. These newer papers will often be more specific.

Explore! There's rarely a single answer to a research question. Click "Related articles" or "Cited by" to see closely related work, or search for author's name and see what else they have written.

Searching Google Scholar

Use the "author:" operator, e.g., author:"d knuth" or author:"donald e knuth".

Put the paper's title in quotations: "A History of the China Sea".

You'll often get better results if you search only recent articles, but still sort them by relevance, not by date. E.g., click "Since 2018" in the left sidebar of the search results page.

To see the absolutely newest articles first, click "Sort by date" in the sidebar. If you use this feature a lot, you may also find it useful to setup email alerts to have new results automatically sent to you.

Note: On smaller screens that don't show the sidebar, these options are available in the dropdown menu labelled "Year" right below the search button.

Select the "Case law" option on the homepage or in the side drawer on the search results page.

It finds documents similar to the given search result.

It's in the side drawer. The advanced search window lets you search in the author, title, and publication fields, as well as limit your search results by date.

Select the "Case law" option and do a keyword search over all jurisdictions. Then, click the "Select courts" link in the left sidebar on the search results page.

Tip: To quickly search a frequently used selection of courts, bookmark a search results page with the desired selection.

Access to articles

For each Scholar search result, we try to find a version of the article that you can read. These access links are labelled [PDF] or [HTML] and appear to the right of the search result. For example:

A paper that you need to read

Access links cover a wide variety of ways in which articles may be available to you - articles that your library subscribes to, open access articles, free-to-read articles from publishers, preprints, articles in repositories, etc.

When you are on a campus network, access links automatically include your library subscriptions and direct you to subscribed versions of articles. On-campus access links cover subscriptions from primary publishers as well as aggregators.

Off-campus access

Off-campus access links let you take your library subscriptions with you when you are at home or traveling. You can read subscribed articles when you are off-campus just as easily as when you are on-campus. Off-campus access links work by recording your subscriptions when you visit Scholar while on-campus, and looking up the recorded subscriptions later when you are off-campus.

We use the recorded subscriptions to provide you with the same subscribed access links as you see on campus. We also indicate your subscription access to participating publishers so that they can allow you to read the full-text of these articles without logging in or using a proxy. The recorded subscription information expires after 30 days and is automatically deleted.

In addition to Google Scholar search results, off-campus access links can also appear on articles from publishers participating in the off-campus subscription access program. Look for links labeled [PDF] or [HTML] on the right hand side of article pages.

Anne Author , John Doe , Jane Smith , Someone Else

In this fascinating paper, we investigate various topics that would be of interest to you. We also describe new methods relevant to your project, and attempt to address several questions which you would also like to know the answer to. Lastly, we analyze …

You can disable off-campus access links on the Scholar settings page . Disabling off-campus access links will turn off recording of your library subscriptions. It will also turn off indicating subscription access to participating publishers. Once off-campus access links are disabled, you may need to identify and configure an alternate mechanism (e.g., an institutional proxy or VPN) to access your library subscriptions while off-campus.

Email Alerts

Do a search for the topic of interest, e.g., "M Theory"; click the envelope icon in the sidebar of the search results page; enter your email address, and click "Create alert". We'll then periodically email you newly published papers that match your search criteria.

No, you can enter any email address of your choice. If the email address isn't a Google account or doesn't match your Google account, then we'll email you a verification link, which you'll need to click to start receiving alerts.

This works best if you create a public profile , which is free and quick to do. Once you get to the homepage with your photo, click "Follow" next to your name, select "New citations to my articles", and click "Done". We will then email you when we find new articles that cite yours.

Search for the title of your paper, e.g., "Anti de Sitter space and holography"; click on the "Cited by" link at the bottom of the search result; and then click on the envelope icon in the left sidebar of the search results page.

First, do a search for your colleague's name, and see if they have a Scholar profile. If they do, click on it, click the "Follow" button next to their name, select "New articles by this author", and click "Done".

If they don't have a profile, do a search by author, e.g., [author:s-hawking], and click on the mighty envelope in the left sidebar of the search results page. If you find that several different people share the same name, you may need to add co-author names or topical keywords to limit results to the author you wish to follow.

We send the alerts right after we add new papers to Google Scholar. This usually happens several times a week, except that our search robots meticulously observe holidays.

There's a link to cancel the alert at the bottom of every notification email.

If you created alerts using a Google account, you can manage them all here . If you're not using a Google account, you'll need to unsubscribe from the individual alerts and subscribe to the new ones.

Google Scholar library

Google Scholar library is your personal collection of articles. You can save articles right off the search page, organize them by adding labels, and use the power of Scholar search to quickly find just the one you want - at any time and from anywhere. You decide what goes into your library, and we’ll keep the links up to date.

You get all the goodies that come with Scholar search results - links to PDF and to your university's subscriptions, formatted citations, citing articles, and more!

Library help

Find the article you want to add in Google Scholar and click the “Save” button under the search result.

Click “My library” at the top of the page or in the side drawer to view all articles in your library. To search the full text of these articles, enter your query as usual in the search box.

Find the article you want to remove, and then click the “Delete” button under it.

• To add a label to an article, find the article in your library, click the “Label” button under it, select the label you want to apply, and click “Done”.
• To view all the articles with a specific label, click the label name in the left sidebar of your library page.
• To remove a label from an article, click the “Label” button under it, deselect the label you want to remove, and click “Done”.
• To add, edit, or delete labels, click “Manage labels” in the left column of your library page.

Only you can see the articles in your library. If you create a Scholar profile and make it public, then the articles in your public profile (and only those articles) will be visible to everyone.

Your profile contains all the articles you have written yourself. It’s a way to present your work to others, as well as to keep track of citations to it. Your library is a way to organize the articles that you’d like to read or cite, not necessarily the ones you’ve written.

Citation Export

Click the "Cite" button under the search result and then select your bibliography manager at the bottom of the popup. We currently support BibTeX, EndNote, RefMan, and RefWorks.

Err, no, please respect our robots.txt when you access Google Scholar using automated software. As the wearers of crawler's shoes and webmaster's hat, we cannot recommend adherence to web standards highly enough.

Sorry, we're unable to provide bulk access. You'll need to make an arrangement directly with the source of the data you're interested in. Keep in mind that a lot of the records in Google Scholar come from commercial subscription services.

Sorry, we can only show up to 1,000 results for any particular search query. Try a different query to get more results.

Content Coverage

Google Scholar includes journal and conference papers, theses and dissertations, academic books, pre-prints, abstracts, technical reports and other scholarly literature from all broad areas of research. You'll find works from a wide variety of academic publishers, professional societies and university repositories, as well as scholarly articles available anywhere across the web. Google Scholar also includes court opinions and patents.

We index research articles and abstracts from most major academic publishers and repositories worldwide, including both free and subscription sources. To check current coverage of a specific source in Google Scholar, search for a sample of their article titles in quotes.

While we try to be comprehensive, it isn't possible to guarantee uninterrupted coverage of any particular source. We index articles from sources all over the web and link to these websites in our search results. If one of these websites becomes unavailable to our search robots or to a large number of web users, we have to remove it from Google Scholar until it becomes available again.

Our meticulous search robots generally try to index every paper from every website they visit, including most major sources and also many lesser known ones.

That said, Google Scholar is primarily a search of academic papers. Shorter articles, such as book reviews, news sections, editorials, announcements and letters, may or may not be included. Untitled documents and documents without authors are usually not included. Website URLs that aren't available to our search robots or to the majority of web users are, obviously, not included either. Nor do we include websites that require you to sign up for an account, install a browser plugin, watch four colorful ads, and turn around three times and say coo-coo before you can read the listing of titles scanned at 10 DPI... You get the idea, we cover academic papers from sensible websites.

That's usually because we index many of these papers from other websites, such as the websites of their primary publishers. The "site:" operator currently only searches the primary version of each paper.

It could also be that the papers are located on examplejournals.gov, not on example.gov. Please make sure you're searching for the "right" website.

That said, the best way to check coverage of a specific source is to search for a sample of their papers using the title of the paper.

Ahem, we index papers, not journals. You should also ask about our coverage of universities, research groups, proteins, seminal breakthroughs, and other dimensions that are of interest to users. All such questions are best answered by searching for a statistical sample of papers that has the property of interest - journal, author, protein, etc. Many coverage comparisons are available if you search for [allintitle:"google scholar"], but some of them are more statistically valid than others.

Currently, Google Scholar allows you to search and read published opinions of US state appellate and supreme court cases since 1950, US federal district, appellate, tax and bankruptcy courts since 1923 and US Supreme Court cases since 1791. In addition, it includes citations for cases cited by indexed opinions or journal articles which allows you to find influential cases (usually older or international) which are not yet online or publicly available.

Legal opinions in Google Scholar are provided for informational purposes only and should not be relied on as a substitute for legal advice from a licensed lawyer. Google does not warrant that the information is complete or accurate.

We normally add new papers several times a week. However, updates to existing records take 6-9 months to a year or longer, because in order to update our records, we need to first recrawl them from the source website. For many larger websites, the speed at which we can update their records is limited by the crawl rate that they allow.

Inclusion and Corrections

We apologize, and we assure you the error was unintentional. Automated extraction of information from articles in diverse fields can be tricky, so an error sometimes sneaks through.

Please write to the owner of the website where the erroneous search result is coming from, and encourage them to provide correct bibliographic data to us, as described in the technical guidelines . Once the data is corrected on their website, it usually takes 6-9 months to a year or longer for it to be updated in Google Scholar. We appreciate your help and your patience.

If you can't find your papers when you search for them by title and by author, please refer your publisher to our technical guidelines .

You can also deposit your papers into your institutional repository or put their PDF versions on your personal website, but please follow your publisher's requirements when you do so. See our technical guidelines for more details on the inclusion process.

We normally add new papers several times a week; however, it might take us some time to crawl larger websites, and corrections to already included papers can take 6-9 months to a year or longer.

Google Scholar generally reflects the state of the web as it is currently visible to our search robots and to the majority of users. When you're searching for relevant papers to read, you wouldn't want it any other way!

If your citation counts have gone down, chances are that either your paper or papers that cite it have either disappeared from the web entirely, or have become unavailable to our search robots, or, perhaps, have been reformatted in a way that made it difficult for our automated software to identify their bibliographic data and references. If you wish to correct this, you'll need to identify the specific documents with indexing problems and ask your publisher to fix them. Please refer to the technical guidelines .

Please do let us know . Please include the URL for the opinion, the corrected information and a source where we can verify the correction.

We're only able to make corrections to court opinions that are hosted on our own website. For corrections to academic papers, books, dissertations and other third-party material, click on the search result in question and contact the owner of the website where the document came from. For corrections to books from Google Book Search, click on the book's title and locate the link to provide feedback at the bottom of the book's page.

General Questions

These are articles which other scholarly articles have referred to, but which we haven't found online. To exclude them from your search results, uncheck the "include citations" box on the left sidebar.

First, click on links labeled [PDF] or [HTML] to the right of the search result's title. Also, check out the "All versions" link at the bottom of the search result.

Second, if you're affiliated with a university, using a computer on campus will often let you access your library's online subscriptions. Look for links labeled with your library's name to the right of the search result's title. Also, see if there's a link to the full text on the publisher's page with the abstract.

Keep in mind that final published versions are often only available to subscribers, and that some articles are not available online at all. Good luck!

Technically, your web browser remembers your settings in a "cookie" on your computer's disk, and sends this cookie to our website along with every search. Check that your browser isn't configured to discard our cookies. Also, check if disabling various proxies or overly helpful privacy settings does the trick. Either way, your settings are stored on your computer, not on our servers, so a long hard look at your browser's preferences or internet options should help cure the machine's forgetfulness.

Not even close. That phrase is our acknowledgement that much of scholarly research involves building on what others have already discovered. It's taken from Sir Isaac Newton's famous quote, "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants."

• Privacy & Terms

18 Google Scholar tips all students should know

Dec 13, 2022

[[read-time]] min read

Think of this guide as your personal research assistant.

“It’s hard to pick your favorite kid,” Anurag Acharya says when I ask him to talk about a favorite Google Scholar feature he’s worked on. “I work on product, engineering, operations, partnerships,” he says. He’s been doing it for 18 years, which as of this month, happens to be how long Google Scholar has been around.

Google Scholar is also one of Google’s longest-running services. The comprehensive database of research papers, legal cases and other scholarly publications was the fourth Search service Google launched, Anurag says. In honor of this very important tool’s 18th anniversary, I asked Anurag to share 18 things you can do in Google Scholar that you might have missed.

1. Copy article citations in the style of your choice.

With a simple click of the cite button (which sits below an article entry), Google Scholar will give you a ready-to-use citation for the article in five styles, including APA, MLA and Chicago. You can select and copy the one you prefer.

2. Dig deeper with related searches.

Google Scholar’s related searches can help you pinpoint your research; you’ll see them show up on a page in between article results. Anurag describes it like this: You start with a big topic — like “cancer” — and follow up with a related search like “lung cancer” or “colon cancer” to explore specific kinds of cancer.

Related searches can help you find what you’re looking for.

3. And don’t miss the related articles.

This is another great way to find more papers similar to one you found helpful — you can find this link right below an entry.

4. Read the papers you find.

Scholarly articles have long been available only by subscription. To keep you from having to log in every time you see a paper you’re interested in, Scholar works with libraries and publishers worldwide to integrate their subscriptions directly into its search results. Look for a link marked [PDF] or [HTML]. This also includes preprints and other free-to-read versions of papers.

5. Access Google Scholar tools from anywhere on the web with the Scholar Button browser extension.

The Scholar Button browser extension is sort of like a mini version of Scholar that can move around the web with you. If you’re searching for something, hitting the extension icon will show you studies about that topic, and if you’re reading a study, you can hit that same button to find a version you read, create a citation or to save it to your Scholar library.

Install the Scholar Button Chrome browser extension to access Google Scholar from anywhere on the web.

6. Learn more about authors through Scholar profiles.

There are many times when you’ll want to know more about the researchers behind the ideas you’re looking into. You can do this by clicking on an author’s name when it’s hyperlinked in a search result. You’ll find all of their work as well as co-authors, articles they’re cited in and so on. You can also follow authors from their Scholar profile to get email updates about their work, or about when and where their work is cited.

7. Easily find topic experts.

One last thing about author profiles: If there are topics listed below an author’s name on their profile, you can click on these areas of expertise and you’ll see a page of more authors who are researching and publishing on these topics, too.

8. Search for court opinions with the “Case law” button.

Scholar is the largest free database of U.S. court opinions. When you search for something using Google Scholar, you can select the “Case law” button below the search box to see legal cases your keywords are referenced in. You can read the opinions and a summary of what they established.

9. See how those court opinions have been cited.

If you want to better understand the impact of a particular piece of case law, you can select “How Cited,” which is below an entry, to see how and where the document has been cited. For example, here is the How Cited page for Marbury v. Madison , a landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling that established that courts can strike down unconstitutional laws or statutes.

10. Understand how a legal opinion depends on another.

When you’re looking at how case laws are cited within Google Scholar, click on “Cited by” and check out the horizontal bars next to the different results. They indicate how relevant the cited opinion is in the court decision it’s cited within. You will see zero, one, two or three bars before each result. Those bars indicate the extent to which the new opinion depends on and refers to the cited case.

In the Cited by page for New York Times Company v. Sullivan, court cases with three bars next to their name heavily reference the original case. One bar indicates less reliance.

11. Sign up for Google Scholar alerts.

Want to stay up to date on a specific topic? Create an alert for a Google Scholar search for your topics and you’ll get email updates similar to Google Search alerts. Another way to keep up with research in your area is to follow new articles by leading researchers. Go to their profiles and click “Follow.” If you’re a junior grad student, you may consider following articles related to your advisor’s research topics, for instance.

12. Save interesting articles to your library.

It’s easy to go down fascinating rabbit hole after rabbit hole in Google Scholar. Don’t lose track of your research and use the save option that pops up under search results so articles will be in your library for later reading.

13. Keep your library organized with labels.

Labels aren’t only for Gmail! You can create labels within your Google Scholar library so you can keep your research organized. Click on “My library,” and then the “Manage labels…” option to create a new label.

14. If you’re a researcher, share your research with all your colleagues.

Many research funding agencies around the world now mandate that funded articles should become publicly free to read within a year of publication — or sooner. Scholar profiles list such articles to help researchers keep track of them and open up access to ones that are still locked down. That means you can immediately see what is currently available from researchers you’re interested in and how many of their papers will soon be publicly free to read.

15. Look through Scholar’s annual top publications and papers.

Every year, Google Scholar releases the top publications based on the most-cited papers. That list (available in 11 languages) will also take you to each publication’s top papers — this takes into account the “h index,” which measures how much impact an article has had. It’s an excellent place to start a research journey as well as get an idea about the ideas and discoveries researchers are currently focused on.

16. Get even more specific with Advanced Search.

Click on the hamburger icon on the upper left-hand corner and select Advanced Search to fine-tune your queries. For example, articles with exact words or a particular phrase in the title or articles from a particular journal and so on.

17. Find extra help on Google Scholar’s help page.

It might sound obvious, but there’s a wealth of useful information to be found here — like how often the database is updated, tips on formatting searches and how you can use your library subscriptions when you’re off-campus (looking at you, college students!). Oh, and you’ll even learn the origin of that quote on Google Scholar’s home page.

18. Keep up with Google Scholar news.

Don’t forget to check out the Google Scholar blog for updates on new features and tips for using this tool even better.

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Reference management. Clean and simple.

Google Scholar: the ultimate guide

What is Google Scholar?

Why is google scholar better than google for finding research papers, the google scholar search results page, the first two lines: core bibliographic information, quick full text-access options, "cited by" count and other useful links, tips for searching google scholar, 1. google scholar searches are not case sensitive, 2. use keywords instead of full sentences, 3. use quotes to search for an exact match, 3. add the year to the search phrase to get articles published in a particular year, 4. use the side bar controls to adjust your search result, 5. use boolean operator to better control your searches, google scholar advanced search interface, customizing search preferences and options, using the "my library" feature in google scholar, the scope and limitations of google scholar, alternatives to google scholar, country-specific google scholar sites, frequently asked questions about google scholar, related articles.

Google Scholar (GS) is a free academic search engine that can be thought of as the academic version of Google. Rather than searching all of the indexed information on the web, it searches repositories of:

• universities
• scholarly websites

This is generally a smaller subset of the pool that Google searches. It's all done automatically, but most of the search results tend to be reliable scholarly sources.

However, Google is typically less careful about what it includes in search results than more curated, subscription-based academic databases like Scopus and Web of Science . As a result, it is important to take some time to assess the credibility of the resources linked through Google Scholar.

➡️ Take a look at our guide on the best academic databases .

One advantage of using Google Scholar is that the interface is comforting and familiar to anyone who uses Google. This lowers the learning curve of finding scholarly information .

There are a number of useful differences from a regular Google search. Google Scholar allows you to:

• copy a formatted citation in different styles including MLA and APA
• export bibliographic data (BibTeX, RIS) to use with reference management software
• explore other works have cited the listed work
• easily find full text versions of the article

Although it is free to search in Google Scholar, most of the content is not freely available. Google does its best to find copies of restricted articles in public repositories. If you are at an academic or research institution, you can also set up a library connection that allows you to see items that are available through your institution.

The Google Scholar results page differs from the Google results page in a few key ways. The search result page is, however, different and it is worth being familiar with the different pieces of information that are shown. Let's have a look at the results for the search term "machine learning.”

• The first line of each result provides the title of the document (e.g. of an article, book, chapter, or report).
• The second line provides the bibliographic information about the document, in order: the author(s), the journal or book it appears in, the year of publication, and the publisher.

Clicking on the title link will bring you to the publisher’s page where you may be able to access more information about the document. This includes the abstract and options to download the PDF.

To the far right of the entry are more direct options for obtaining the full text of the document. In this example, Google has also located a publicly available PDF of the document hosted at umich.edu . Note, that it's not guaranteed that it is the version of the article that was finally published in the journal.

Below the text snippet/abstract you can find a number of useful links.

• Cited by : the cited by link will show other articles that have cited this resource. That is a super useful feature that can help you in many ways. First, it is a good way to track the more recent research that has referenced this article, and second the fact that other researches cited this document lends greater credibility to it. But be aware that there is a lag in publication type. Therefore, an article published in 2017 will not have an extensive number of cited by results. It takes a minimum of 6 months for most articles to get published, so even if an article was using the source, the more recent article has not been published yet.
• Versions : this link will display other versions of the article or other databases where the article may be found, some of which may offer free access to the article.
• Quotation mark icon : this will display a popup with commonly used citation formats such as MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard, and Vancouver that may be copied and pasted. Note, however, that the Google Scholar citation data is sometimes incomplete and so it is often a good idea to check this data at the source. The "cite" popup also includes links for exporting the citation data as BibTeX or RIS files that any major reference manager can import.

Pro tip: Use a reference manager like Paperpile to keep track of all your sources. Paperpile integrates with Google Scholar and many popular academic research engines and databases, so you can save references and PDFs directly to your library using the Paperpile buttons and later cite them in thousands of citation styles:

Although Google Scholar limits each search to a maximum of 1,000 results , it's still too much to explore, and you need an effective way of locating the relevant articles. Here’s a list of pro tips that will help you save time and search more effectively.

You don’t need to worry about case sensitivity when you’re using Google scholar. In other words, a search for "Machine Learning" will produce the same results as a search for "machine learning.”

Let's say your research topic is about self driving cars. For a regular Google search we might enter something like " what is the current state of the technology used for self driving cars ". In Google Scholar, you will see less than ideal results for this query .

The trick is to build a list of keywords and perform searches for them like self-driving cars, autonomous vehicles, or driverless cars. Google Scholar will assist you on that: if you start typing in the search field you will see related queries suggested by Scholar!

If you put your search phrase into quotes you can search for exact matches of that phrase in the title and the body text of the document. Without quotes, Google Scholar will treat each word separately.

This means that if you search national parks , the words will not necessarily appear together. Grouped words and exact phrases should be enclosed in quotation marks.

A search using “self-driving cars 2015,” for example, will return articles or books published in 2015.

Using the options in the left hand panel you can further restrict the search results by limiting the years covered by the search, the inclusion or exclude of patents, and you can sort the results by relevance or by date.

Searches are not case sensitive, however, there are a number of Boolean operators you can use to control the search and these must be capitalized.

• AND requires both of the words or phrases on either side to be somewhere in the record.
• NOT can be placed in front of a word or phrases to exclude results which include them.
• OR will give equal weight to results which match just one of the words or phrases on either side.

➡️ Read more about how to efficiently search online databases for academic research .

In case you got overwhelmed by the above options, here’s some illustrative examples:

Tip: Use the advanced search features in Google Scholar to narrow down your search results.

You can gain even more fine-grained control over your search by using the advanced search feature. This feature is available by clicking on the hamburger menu in the upper left and selecting the "Advanced search" menu item.

Adjusting the Google Scholar settings is not necessary for getting good results, but offers some additional customization, including the ability to enable the above-mentioned library integrations.

The settings menu is found in the hamburger menu located in the top left of the Google Scholar page. The settings are divided into five sections:

• Collections to search: by default Google scholar searches articles and includes patents, but this default can be changed if you are not interested in patents or if you wish to search case law instead.
• Bibliographic manager: you can export relevant citation data via the “Bibliography manager” subsection.
• Languages: if you wish for results to return only articles written in a specific subset of languages, you can define that here.
• Library links: as noted, Google Scholar allows you to get the Full Text of articles through your institution’s subscriptions, where available. Search for, and add, your institution here to have the relevant link included in your search results.
• Button: the Scholar Button is a Chrome extension which adds a dropdown search box to your toolbar. This allows you to search Google Scholar from any website. Moreover, if you have any text selected on the page and then click the button it will display results from a search on those words when clicked.

When signed in, Google Scholar adds some simple tools for keeping track of and organizing the articles you find. These can be useful if you are not using a full academic reference manager.

All the search results include a “save” button at the end of the bottom row of links, clicking this will add it to your "My Library".

To help you provide some structure, you can create and apply labels to the items in your library. Appended labels will appear at the end of the article titles. For example, the following article has been assigned a “RNA” label:

Within your Google Scholar library, you can also edit the metadata associated with titles. This will often be necessary as Google Scholar citation data is often faulty.

There is no official statement about how big the Scholar search index is, but unofficial estimates are in the range of about 160 million , and it is supposed to continue to grow by several million each year.

Yet, Google Scholar does not return all resources that you may get in search at you local library catalog. For example, a library database could return podcasts, videos, articles, statistics, or special collections. For now, Google Scholar has only the following publication types:

• Journal articles : articles published in journals. It's a mixture of articles from peer reviewed journals, predatory journals and pre-print archives.
• Books : links to the Google limited version of the text, when possible.
• Book chapters : chapters within a book, sometimes they are also electronically available.
• Book reviews : reviews of books, but it is not always apparent that it is a review from the search result.
• Conference proceedings : papers written as part of a conference, typically used as part of presentation at the conference.
• Court opinions .
• Patents : Google Scholar only searches patents if the option is selected in the search settings described above.

The information in Google Scholar is not cataloged by professionals. The quality of the metadata will depend heavily on the source that Google Scholar is pulling the information from. This is a much different process to how information is collected and indexed in scholarly databases such as Scopus or Web of Science .

➡️ Visit our list of the best academic databases .

Google Scholar is by far the most frequently used academic search engine , but it is not the only one. Other academic search engines include:

• Science.gov
• Semantic Scholar
• scholar.google.fr : Sur les épaules d'un géant
• scholar.google.es (Google Académico): A hombros de gigantes
• scholar.google.pt (Google Académico): Sobre os ombros de gigantes
• scholar.google.de : Auf den Schultern von Riesen

➡️ Once you’ve found some research, it’s time to read it. Take a look at our guide on how to read a scientific paper .

No. Google Scholar is a bibliographic search engine rather than a bibliographic database. In order to qualify as a database Google Scholar would need to have stable identifiers for its records.

No. Google Scholar is an academic search engine, but the records found in Google Scholar are scholarly sources.

No. Google Scholar collects research papers from all over the web, including grey literature and non-peer reviewed papers and reports.

Google Scholar does not provide any full text content itself, but links to the full text article on the publisher page, which can either be open access or paywalled content. Google Scholar tries to provide links to free versions, when possible.

The easiest way to access Google scholar is by using The Google Scholar Button. This is a browser extension that allows you easily access Google Scholar from any web page. You can install it from the Chrome Webstore .

Research Basics: an open academic research skills course

• Lesson 1: Using Library Tools
• Lesson 2: Smart searching
• Lesson 3: Managing information overload
• Assessment - Module 1
• Lesson 1: The ABCs of scholarly sources
• Lesson 2: Additional ways of identifying scholarly sources
• Lesson 3: Verifying online sources
• Assessment - Module 2
• Lesson 1: Creating citations
• Lesson 2: Citing and paraphrasing
• Lesson 3: Works cited, bibliographies, and notes
• Assessment - Module 3
• - For Librarians and Teachers -
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Welcome to the ever-expanding universe of scholarly research!

There's a lot of digital content out there, and we want to help you get a handle on it. Where do you start? What do you do? How do you use it? Don’t worry, this course has you covered.

This introductory program was created by  JSTOR  to help you get familiar with basic research concepts needed for success in school. The course contains three modules, each made up of three short lessons and three sets of practice quizzes. The topics covered are subjects that will help you prepare for college-level research. Each module ends with an assessment to test your knowledge.

The JSTOR librarians who helped create the course hope you learn from the experience and feel ready to research when you’ve finished this program.  Select Module 1: Effective Searching to begin the course. Good luck!

• Next: Module 1: Effective searching >>
• Last Updated: Apr 24, 2024 6:38 AM
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What is Google Scholar and how do I use it?

• Google Scholar

A Quick Look at Google Scholar

What is google scholar.

Google Scholar is a Web search engine that specifically searches scholarly literature and academic resources.

But my teacher said not to use Google! How is "Google Scholar" different from "Google"?

Google searches public Web content. Your teacher says "Don't use Google," meaning that you should not use the public Web content.

Google Scholar is different. It searches the same kinds of scholarly books, articles, and documents that you search in the Library's catalog and databases. The scholarly, authoritative focus of Google Scholar distinguishes it from ordinary Google.

So how is Google Scholar related to (and different from) the Library's databases?

There is overlap between the content in Google Scholar and the Library's individual databases. Also, many citations in Google Scholar will link to full text in the Library's databases or in publicly available databases. But Google Scholar will not contain everything that is in the Library's databases.

Google Scholar can be a convenient starting place, but it is not a comprehensive "one-stop shop." For more precise searching, more search features, and more content, use the Library's individual databases .

How do I search and view items in Google Scholar?

Searching is as easy as searching in regular Google. Start from the Library's Homepage to search SHSU's Google Scholar. Click on the Articles & More tab and locate the Google Scholar search box at the very bottom. Enter a search term or phrase, such as "bird flu."

Like regular Google, Google Scholar returns the most relevant results first, based on an item's full text, author, source, and the number of times it has been cited in other sources. Some actions are a little different from regular Google: clicking on a title may only take you to a citation or description, rather than to the full document itself. Google Scholar will not necessarily get you to the full text of every search result.

How do I find the full-text documents in my search results?

To find the full document, look for (1) a PDF or HTML link to the right of the article title, or (2) an Online Resources @ SHSU link. These links will help you find the full text of the document, either in a publicly available place or in one of the online databases offered by SHSU.

If you don't see these links or they don't take you to the full text, you can contact the Library Service Desk for help in finding the article. Some documents will be unavailable online, but they may be available in the library building or through Interlibrary Loan .

A final word of wisdom...

Keep in mind that Google Scholar is not perfect . For more precise searching, more search features, and more content, check out the Library's individual databases and online catalog .

• Library databases
• Library website

Google Scholar: Search Google Scholar

Search tips for google scholar.

Google Scholar is very similar to Google; you can use many of the same search options.

• Google Scholar automatically places AND between words:

nurse stress retention

• Place quotation marks around phrases or titles:

"social learning theory"

"On the Origin of Species"

• Search for alternate terms using OR, with the terms enclosed in parentheses:

("first grade" OR "second grade")

(theory OR model)

You can also use the advanced Google Scholar search to create your search string. Creating a complex Google Scholar search can be difficult.

A good Google Scholar strategy is to try multiple searches, adjusting your keywords with each search.

• Learn more about Google Scholars advanced search.

Cited By feature in Google Scholar

Use the Cited by link to find articles and books that cite a specific article.

The cited by feature is a great way to find more recent articles and to  trace an idea from its original source up to the present.

• Start by locating a single item in Google Scholar.

• Click the Cited by link to see a list of the items that cite your original item. Older and more influential items will have a higher number of Cited by results.

Advanced search options

For more complex searches, try Google Scholar's Advanced Search page.

• To access the advanced search option, click on the three line icon in the upper left corner of the Google Scholar search page.

The advanced search allows you to search more precisely. 

• Use the articles dated between option to limit to specific years.
• Try the authored by  search box to see resources by a specific author
• Explore the other search options to see what's most effective for your search, such as searching in specific journals, searching for exact phrases, and using different keyword strategies.

Watch a search

• Watch a search for a complicated topic using the advanced search feature.

See how the search differs between a library database and Google Scholar.

• Watch a search for a specific article by title.

Video: Google Scholar Advanced Search

(1 min 18 sec) Recorded January 2018  Transcript 

Video: Find an article by title in Google Scholar

(2 min 38 sec) Recorded January 2018  Transcript 

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

What is Google Scholar and How to Use it for Research?

Finding scholarly and peer-reviewed articles for academic research on search engines can feel like searching for a needle in a haystack. Enter Google Scholar, a beacon for researchers, academics, and scholars. Unlike traditional Google searches that return a mix of results from various sources, Google Scholar specializes in providing access to scholarly literature. If you’re using Google Scholar for research, this article offers some great tips that will help you optimize your usage of Google Scholar for research and get access to relevant and better results. 

Table of Contents

What is Google Scholar?  

Google Scholar is a freely available academic search engine developed by Google. It indexes scholarly articles, books, and academic and conference papers by searching repositories of scholarly websites, universities, and publishers across various academic disciplines. For students and researchers, and those in academia, Google Scholar offers quick and easy access to a vast repository of academic content from multiple disciplines that can be useful when writing scholarly manuscripts and citations.  

How is Google Scholar different from a regular Google search?  

Regular Google search engines are ideal for finding information on general topics, news, and non-academic information as they scan the entire web for information. On the other hand, searches conducted using Google Scholar are more focused on specific subsets of academic and scientific data. However, when searching Google Scholar, students, and researchers need to verify available links and resources, as search results may not always be as reliable and authoritative as those presented by  Scopus  or  Web of Science .  

10 Tips to Use Google Scholar for Research 

Students and researchers often use Google Scholar for research to access high-quality, credible sources for their work, facilitating a deeper understanding of their research topic. To harness the full potential of Google Scholar, consider these tips: 

• Keywords are essential:  While using Google Scholar for research, refrain from typing the entire topic of your research; instead, build and utilize a list of keywords. This will make your search more valuable and efficient.
• Use of quotation marks: It is essential to specify the keywords in quotation marks for Google Scholar to provide you with the most relevant results. Quotation marks help establish the fact that you need results that are an exact match to your keywords. On the other hand, if quotation marks are not used, Google Scholar will deal with each keyword separately. This will lead to losing a considerable amount of time in searching for the most suitable articles.
• Search by author’s name: If you want to search for articles and information written by a particular author related to your specific area of study, it is best to search by author name or click on the specific author’s name as it appears in any article produced through the search results.
• Mention details if available: If you know the correct title of the article you are searching for, mention it in quotes in the search bar. This will throw up results with an exact match. Additionally, stating the year of publication of the articles or books you are searching for will get you better results.  
• Researcher profiles: Google Scholar offers academics the option of creating their researcher profile, which can help them highlight their work, publications, and citations. This profile can be used as a digital CV and can help in networking and collaboration. 
• Integration with universities:  Some universities and libraries integrate Google Scholar into their search systems, providing seamless access to academic content through institutional accounts.  
• Viewing full-text papers: Undertaking searches on Google Scholar will allow you to view the full text of a document by clicking on the link found on the right of the article title. These are usually presented in either PDF or HTML format. You can also view the full text by using Google Scholar through your institution’s web page in cases where it is accessible by the institution. 
• Advanced Search Options:  Use the advanced search feature to narrow down results by author, publication, and date. This precision can help you quickly find specific documents. 
• Accessing Full-Text Papers:  Look for links to PDFs or HTML formats on the right side of the search results page. If your institution has access, you might also find links to full text through your library’s subscriptions. 
• Easy Citation:  Google Scholar simplifies the citation process by providing citations in various formats (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago) for each article, which can be easily copied and pasted into your work. The citation feature can be used to reference the article you want to use. However, it is always helpful to cross-check the references to see if all the information is included in it. 
• Use of My Library:   In order to save the information and articles you choose from the search results and structure and organize them, it is always helpful to make use of the “my library” feature in Google Scholar. You can create a library where you will be able to save the needed documents. 

How does R Discovery optimize your research reading process?  

Keeping up with the latest research in your field and related areas is challenging. Every year, millions of papers are published, making it difficult to stay informed. Imagine how much simpler it would be if you could receive recommendations for research tailored to your interests. While Google Scholar is a powerful tool, R Discovery uses its tech capabilities around AI, ML, and NLP to solve the problem of recurring searches for research for researchers.  

For example, if you search for COVID-19 on Google Scholar and log out, you’ll have to ask Google Scholar (in every session) to show you content about COVID-19. This process becomes repetitive and consumes most of your time. Moreover, Google Scholar finds content that has been properly optimized for search. This means if a paper was not very famous or was not correctly tagged on the internet, you may never discover it. 

R Discovery’s targeted research reading with Literature Recommendations makes this process easier. R Discovery sifts through over 100 million scholarly articles across more than 9.5 million topics, quickly curates a list of research papers that match your interests, and offers personalized reading recommendations, saving you time. R Discovery saves your search queries and topics against your profile and will find relevant papers for you without any search every time you come to the app. 

With R Discovery, get access to the most extensive collection of open-access journals, including over 39 million open-access papers and more than 2 million preprints, all in one convenient location. If you’re new to R Discovery, now’s the perfect opportunity to get relevant research recommendations and simplify your research discovery. Click to install the free R Discovery app now!

R Discovery is a literature search and research reading platform that accelerates your research discovery journey by keeping you updated on the latest, most relevant scholarly content. With 250M+ research articles sourced from trusted aggregators like CrossRef, Unpaywall, PubMed, PubMed Central, Open Alex and top publishing houses like Springer Nature, JAMA, IOP, Taylor & Francis, NEJM, BMJ, Karger, SAGE, Emerald Publishing and more, R Discovery puts a world of research at your fingertips.  

Try R Discovery Prime FREE for 1 week or upgrade at just US$72 a year to access premium features that let you listen to research on the go, read in your language, collaborate with peers, auto sync with reference managers, and much more. Choose a simpler, smarter way to find and read research – Download the app and start your free 7-day trial today !  

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28 Best Academic Search Engines That make your research easier

If you’re a researcher or scholar, you know that conducting effective online research is a critical part of your job. And if you’re like most people, you’re always on the lookout for new and better ways to do it. 

This article aims to give you an edge over researchers that rely mainly on Google for their entire research process.

Table of Contents

#1. Google Scholar

Google Scholar is an academic search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines.

Great for academic research, you can use Google Scholar to find articles from academic journals, conference proceedings, theses, and dissertations. The results returned by Google Scholar are typically more relevant and reliable than those from regular search engines like Google.

#2. ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) 

ERIC (short for educational resources information center) is a great academic search engine that focuses on education-related literature. It is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education and produced by the Institute of Education Sciences. 

ERIC indexes over a million articles, reports, conference papers, and other resources on all aspects of education from early childhood to higher education. So, search results are more relevant to Education on ERIC. 

ERIC is a free online database of education-related literature. 

#3. Wolfram Alpha

Wolfram Alpha is a “computational knowledge engine” that can answer factual questions posed in natural language. It can be a useful search tool. 

Wolfram Alpha can also be used to find academic articles. Just type in your keywords and Wolfram Alpha will generate a list of academic articles that match your query.

#4. iSEEK Education 

iSEEK is a search engine targeting students, teachers, administrators, and caregiver. It’s designed to be safe with editor-reviewed content.

iSEEK Education is free to use.

#5. BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine)

CORE is an academic search engine that focuses on open access research papers. A link to the full text PDF or complete text web page is supplied for each search result. It’s academic search engine dedicated to open access research papers.

You might also like:

#7. Science.gov

#8. semantic scholar, #9. refseek.

This is one of the free search engines that feels like Yahoo with a massive directory. It could be good when you are just looking for research ideas from unexpected angles. It could lead you to some other database that you might not know such as the CIA The World Factbook, which is a great reference tool.

#10. ResearchGate 

A mixture of social networking site + forum + content databases where researchers can build their profile, share research papers, and interact with one another.

#11. DataONE Search (formerly CiteULike) 

#12. dataelixir , #13. lazyscholar – browser extension, #14. citeseerx – digital library from penstate, #15. the lens – patents search , #16. fatcat – wiki for bibliographic catalog , #17. lexis web – legal database, #18. infotopia – part of the vlrc family, #19. virtual learning resources center, #21. worldwidescience.

Over 70 countries’ databases are used on the website. When a user enters a query, it contacts databases from all across the world and shows results in both English and translated journals and academic resources.

#22. Google Books

A user can browse thousands of books on Google Books, from popular titles to old titles, to find pages that include their search terms. You can look through pages, read online reviews, and find out where to buy a hard copy once you find the book you are interested in.

#23. DOAJ (Directory of Open Access Journals)

#24. baidu scholar, #25. pubmed central, #26. medline®.

MEDLINE® is a paid subscription database for life sciences and biomedicine that includes more than 28 million citations to journal articles. For finding reliable, carefully chosen health information, Medline Plus provides a powerful search tool and even a dictionary.

Defunct Academic Search Engines 

#27. microsoft academic  .

Microsoft Academic

#28. Scizzle

Final thoughts.

There are many academic search engines that can help researchers and scholars find the information they need. This list provides a variety of options, starting with more familiar engines and moving on to less well-known ones. 

10 thoughts on “28 Best Academic Search Engines That make your research easier”

Thank you so much Joannah..I have found this information useful to me as librarian in an academic library

You are welcome! We are happy to hear that!

Thank You Team, for providing a comprehensive list of academic search engines that can help make research easier for students and scholars. The variety of search engines included offers a range of options for finding scholarly articles, journals, and other academic resources. The article also provides a brief summary of each search engine’s features, which helps in determining which one is the best fit for a specific research topic. Overall, this article is a valuable resource for anyone looking for a quick and easy way to access a wealth of academic information.

We appreciate your support and thank you for your kind words. We will continue to provide valuable resources for students and researchers in the future. Please let us know if you have any further questions or suggestions.

No more questions Thank You

I cannot thank you enough!!! thanks alot 🙂

Typography animation is a technique that combines text and motion to create visually engaging and dynamic animations. It involves animating individual letters, words, or phrases in various ways to convey a message, evoke emotions, or enhance the visual impact of a design or video. – Typography Animation Techniques Tools and Online Software {43}

Expontum – Helps researchers quickly find knowledge gaps and identify what research projects have been completed before. Expontum is free, open access, and available to all globally with no paid versions of the site. Automated processes scan research article information 24/7 so this website is constantly updating. By looking at over 35 million research publications (240 million by the end of 2023), the site has 146 million tagged research subjects and 122 million tagged research attributes. Learn more about methodology and sources on the Expontum About Page ( https://www.expontum.com/about.php )

Hey Ryan, I clicked and checked your site and thought it was very relevant to our reader. Thank you for sharing. And, we will be reviewing your site soon.

Sounds good! Thanks, Joannah!

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The Google Scholar Features Every Student Should Know

From magazine articles to peer-reviewed papers and case laws, Google Scholar can provide cutting-edge research for free. It's one of Google's lesser-known search tools—but it's invaluable if you need to cite data from trusted sources. 

Google Scholar isn't perfect as an academic search engine—you'll need to know a few tips to help you get the most out of it.

Use Google Scholar's Advanced Search

With some practice, Google Scholar's Advanced Search filters will become your go-to search tool. 

Click the hamburger menu;  Advanced Search  is the second-to-last option.

The Advanced Search box gives you nine filters to search with—their functions are self-explanatory.

You can search for specific terms, find exact phrases, and also search with synonyms. 

For more targeted results, combine these options with filters like publication date, time range, or author. 

Note:  Search results are usually sorted by relevance, not by date. Use the date filters on the results page or select  Sort by date , if that's what you're looking for. Scholar supports all the regular and advanced Boolean search operators, just like Google's regular search. 

Browse articles in your area of interest

You can go to the Google Scholar Metrics page, search through the  top 100 publications , and then drill down to the ones cited most. Then, instead of conducting a random search, you can take a bird's-eye view of the developments in your area of specialization. 

Open the sidebar via the hamburger menu and click on  Metrics . 

Select the dropdown next to  Categories  and then the dropdown for  Subcategories  if you want to drill down deeper.  

Go back to find the fundamental research

When we use Google Search, we are interested in the latest. In Google Scholar, we can go back in time with the date filters (or use a custom date range) to search for foundational research in any field. 

Tip:  Try searching with Chrome's incognito mode and see if it gives you slightly different, non-personalized results that aren't based on your search history. 

Search for experts

 It helps to know who the more influential voices are in your field. You can enter a search term in Google Scholar and find the most cited papers. But first, open the sidebar (select the hamburger icon next to the Google Scholar logo) and select  Profiles . 

The search page updates with the authors' public profiles while retaining what you had initially searched for. Use this information to learn more about their work in your field. 

Tip:  Search for the authors you want more of on YouTube, other academic journals, or social profiles to follow their latest work and lectures. 

Stay updated with Google Scholar Alerts

If you are a heavy Google Scholar user, set up alerts to stay on top of the latest developments. You'll receive emails whenever a new academic topic is published. 

Log into your Google account. 

Click the hamburger menu to open the sidebar. 

Select  Alerts  to open a new page. 

Click the red  Create alert  button and insert the keywords for which Google Scholar should look. 

Select  Update results  to get a preview of the results for the query you used.

Select  Create Alert  to set up the alert. You can set as many alerts as you want. 

Tip:  You can also set up an alert for a particular query from the search results page by clicking on  Create alert .  

Install the Google Scholar button

The Google Scholar button is a Chrome extension that gives you ready access to Google Scholar search results without copying and pasting. You can look up academic articles from any webpage you are on without leaving it. 

For instance, highlight any keyword, topic heading, or citation on any webpage. Click the Google Scholar button, and the relevant results appear in a window. 

You can also use the search field in the Google Scholar window to directly type in a search query.

Learn any subject with Google Scholar

Performing basic research is a fundamental soft skill that can help you develop critical thinking skills. Google Scholar gives you an idea of the broader research in any field. With the right keywords, you can then dive deeper into the results.

Explore the  Top publications  page and the most cited papers to see emerging trends in any field. Use the language filter on the right to read or translate papers in other languages.

Click on the  Cited by  link in the search results to see if fresher research has built upon the material you are reading about.

Click on  All versions  under the search result and see if the alternative sources have the entire paper instead of an abstract. 

Check out  Related articles  and  Related searches  to cross-pollinate your learning with similar ideas from adjacent fields.

Use Google Scholar's  My library  feature to curate articles for later. For instance, click  Save  to read a paper later and use the  Reading list  label. 

Google recommends that if you're new to a subject, picking up the terminology from secondary sources may be helpful. For example, a Wikipedia article on "intravenous feeding" might suggest a Scholar search for "hyperalimentation."

Google Scholar offers  Library links and Library Search  to access any electronic and print resources in a library connected to Google Scholar results. 

Have fun on Google Scholar

Yes, Google Scholar is a serious search engine. But you can still use it to search for quirky topics and see the results it throws up. As a Star Trek fan, I often go there to search for stuff a fellow fan or academic might have written. And 148,000 results suggest that the iconic show is a scholarly subject for many. Try it with your favorite show or movie. 

Organizing Research for Arts and Humanities Papers and Theses

• General Guide Information
• Developing a Topic
• What are Primary and Secondary Sources
• What are Scholarly and Non-Scholarly Sources
• Writing an Abstract
• Writing Academic Book Reviews
• Writing A Literature Review
• Using Images and other Media

What is a Scholarly Source

Both scholarly and non-scholarly materials have a place in arts and humanities research. Their use, and even their definition, depends on the context of the research project.

Books, conference publications, and academic journal articles, regardless of whether they are print-based or electronic, are common types of scholarly materials, which share the following characteristics:

• The authors are scholars or researchers with known affiliations and educational/research credentials
• The authors cite other sources, be they primary or secondary. Many scholarly publications include citations to other sources and bibliographies
• The language used is either academic or complex, and may include disciplinary or theoretical lingo
• The publisher is a scholarly press that practices editorial review to ensure that content and context adhere to the expected research parameters
• The intended audience is composed of researchers, scholars, academics, and other informed or specialized readership.

Scholarly and academic journals, which are periodic publications that contain articles, have additional characteristics, such as:

• An editorial process that is peer reviewed or refereed
• They publish long articles (essays that are ordinarily at least 10 pages), which may also inlcude an abstract. Scholarly journals often publish essay-length scholarly book reviews, which include citations to other sources
• Scholarly journals are published relatively infrequently, usually quarterly (once every 3 months), semi-annually (twice a year), or annually (once a year).

Use the points above to evaluate the scholarly nature of internet sites. It helps if the site's URL ends in .edu.

So far, so good.

But things are not always clear cut, and here are some complexities to keep in mind:

• Scholarly materials in art, architecture, theater, cinema, and related fields often include images
• Images may constitute a large portion of such publications, with text used to illustrate, contextualize, critique, or explicate the visual component
• There may be fewer citations to other sources, and the bibliographies may be shorter
• The author may be a creative practitioner, such as, for example, an architect or a playwright
• The author may be a multi-disciplinary intellectual of a transnational stature, who does not rely on the commonly acceptable scholarly apparatus. For example, works by Roland Barthes, which lack footnotes or bibliographies, are considered scholarly. An essay by Jean Baudrillard about Disneyworld, which appeared in the French daily newspaper Liberation , may also be considered scholarly, given the stature of the author and his importance in the development of a particular theoretical analysis of popular culture.

What is a Non-Scholarly Source

Non-scholarly materials usually consiste of, but are not limited to:

• News sources, newspapers, and materials that are time-based and get updated frequently
• Sources that are primarily journalistic
• Sources written for a broad readership
• Sources that are advocacy or opinion-based. Keep in mind that opinion-based articles, scholarly news, and letters to the editor get published in scholarly journals alongside scholarly articles.
• Sources that lack references to other sources
• Data and statistical publications and compilations
• Primary sources
• Trade and professional sources
• Reviews of books, movies, plays, or gallery and art shows, that are not essay-length and that do not inlcude a bibliographic context

Non-scholarly materials are legitimate sources for research in the arts and humanities, and should be used in context, just as scholarly sources must be used in context. For example, if you are researching something that happened very recently, you will have to, by necessity, use non-scholarly sources. It takes time for scholarship to be written, reviewed by peers, and published. In addition, there is no guarantee that your particular topic is of interest to other scholars. In such cases, look for scholarly materials in related areas that can provide a critical framework for you to use in analyzing your topic.

Remember to keep track of your sources, regardless of the stage of your research. The USC Libraries have an excellent guide to  citation styles  and to  citation management software . 

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What is Scientific Research and How Can it be Done?

Scientific researches are studies that should be systematically planned before performing them. In this review, classification and description of scientific studies, planning stage randomisation and bias are explained.

Research conducted for the purpose of contributing towards science by the systematic collection, interpretation and evaluation of data and that, too, in a planned manner is called scientific research: a researcher is the one who conducts this research. The results obtained from a small group through scientific studies are socialised, and new information is revealed with respect to diagnosis, treatment and reliability of applications. The purpose of this review is to provide information about the definition, classification and methodology of scientific research.

Before beginning the scientific research, the researcher should determine the subject, do planning and specify the methodology. In the Declaration of Helsinki, it is stated that ‘the primary purpose of medical researches on volunteers is to understand the reasons, development and effects of diseases and develop protective, diagnostic and therapeutic interventions (method, operation and therapies). Even the best proven interventions should be evaluated continuously by investigations with regard to reliability, effectiveness, efficiency, accessibility and quality’ ( 1 ).

The questions, methods of response to questions and difficulties in scientific research may vary, but the design and structure are generally the same ( 2 ).

Classification of Scientific Research

Scientific research can be classified in several ways. Classification can be made according to the data collection techniques based on causality, relationship with time and the medium through which they are applied.

• Observational
• Experimental
• Descriptive
• Retrospective
• Prospective
• Cross-sectional
• Social descriptive research ( 3 )

Another method is to classify the research according to its descriptive or analytical features. This review is written according to this classification method.

I. Descriptive research

• Case series
• Surveillance studies

II. Analytical research

• Observational studies: cohort, case control and cross- sectional research
• Interventional research: quasi-experimental and clinical research
• Case Report: it is the most common type of descriptive study. It is the examination of a single case having a different quality in the society, e.g. conducting general anaesthesia in a pregnant patient with mucopolysaccharidosis.
• Case Series: it is the description of repetitive cases having common features. For instance; case series involving interscapular pain related to neuraxial labour analgesia. Interestingly, malignant hyperthermia cases are not accepted as case series since they are rarely seen during historical development.
• Surveillance Studies: these are the results obtained from the databases that follow and record a health problem for a certain time, e.g. the surveillance of cross-infections during anaesthesia in the intensive care unit.

Moreover, some studies may be experimental. After the researcher intervenes, the researcher waits for the result, observes and obtains data. Experimental studies are, more often, in the form of clinical trials or laboratory animal trials ( 2 ).

Analytical observational research can be classified as cohort, case-control and cross-sectional studies.

Firstly, the participants are controlled with regard to the disease under investigation. Patients are excluded from the study. Healthy participants are evaluated with regard to the exposure to the effect. Then, the group (cohort) is followed-up for a sufficient period of time with respect to the occurrence of disease, and the progress of disease is studied. The risk of the healthy participants getting sick is considered an incident. In cohort studies, the risk of disease between the groups exposed and not exposed to the effect is calculated and rated. This rate is called relative risk. Relative risk indicates the strength of exposure to the effect on the disease.

Cohort research may be observational and experimental. The follow-up of patients prospectively is called a prospective cohort study . The results are obtained after the research starts. The researcher’s following-up of cohort subjects from a certain point towards the past is called a retrospective cohort study . Prospective cohort studies are more valuable than retrospective cohort studies: this is because in the former, the researcher observes and records the data. The researcher plans the study before the research and determines what data will be used. On the other hand, in retrospective studies, the research is made on recorded data: no new data can be added.

In fact, retrospective and prospective studies are not observational. They determine the relationship between the date on which the researcher has begun the study and the disease development period. The most critical disadvantage of this type of research is that if the follow-up period is long, participants may leave the study at their own behest or due to physical conditions. Cohort studies that begin after exposure and before disease development are called ambidirectional studies . Public healthcare studies generally fall within this group, e.g. lung cancer development in smokers.

• Case-Control Studies: these studies are retrospective cohort studies. They examine the cause and effect relationship from the effect to the cause. The detection or determination of data depends on the information recorded in the past. The researcher has no control over the data ( 2 ).

Cross-sectional studies are advantageous since they can be concluded relatively quickly. It may be difficult to obtain a reliable result from such studies for rare diseases ( 2 ).

Cross-sectional studies are characterised by timing. In such studies, the exposure and result are simultaneously evaluated. While cross-sectional studies are restrictedly used in studies involving anaesthesia (since the process of exposure is limited), they can be used in studies conducted in intensive care units.

• Quasi-Experimental Research: they are conducted in cases in which a quick result is requested and the participants or research areas cannot be randomised, e.g. giving hand-wash training and comparing the frequency of nosocomial infections before and after hand wash.
• Clinical Research: they are prospective studies carried out with a control group for the purpose of comparing the effect and value of an intervention in a clinical case. Clinical study and research have the same meaning. Drugs, invasive interventions, medical devices and operations, diets, physical therapy and diagnostic tools are relevant in this context ( 6 ).

Clinical studies are conducted by a responsible researcher, generally a physician. In the research team, there may be other healthcare staff besides physicians. Clinical studies may be financed by healthcare institutes, drug companies, academic medical centres, volunteer groups, physicians, healthcare service providers and other individuals. They may be conducted in several places including hospitals, universities, physicians’ offices and community clinics based on the researcher’s requirements. The participants are made aware of the duration of the study before their inclusion. Clinical studies should include the evaluation of recommendations (drug, device and surgical) for the treatment of a disease, syndrome or a comparison of one or more applications; finding different ways for recognition of a disease or case and prevention of their recurrence ( 7 ).

Clinical Research

In this review, clinical research is explained in more detail since it is the most valuable study in scientific research.

Clinical research starts with forming a hypothesis. A hypothesis can be defined as a claim put forward about the value of a population parameter based on sampling. There are two types of hypotheses in statistics.

• H 0 hypothesis is called a control or null hypothesis. It is the hypothesis put forward in research, which implies that there is no difference between the groups under consideration. If this hypothesis is rejected at the end of the study, it indicates that a difference exists between the two treatments under consideration.
• H 1 hypothesis is called an alternative hypothesis. It is hypothesised against a null hypothesis, which implies that a difference exists between the groups under consideration. For example, consider the following hypothesis: drug A has an analgesic effect. Control or null hypothesis (H 0 ): there is no difference between drug A and placebo with regard to the analgesic effect. The alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) is applicable if a difference exists between drug A and placebo with regard to the analgesic effect.

The planning phase comes after the determination of a hypothesis. A clinical research plan is called a protocol . In a protocol, the reasons for research, number and qualities of participants, tests to be applied, study duration and what information to be gathered from the participants should be found and conformity criteria should be developed.

The selection of participant groups to be included in the study is important. Inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study for the participants should be determined. Inclusion criteria should be defined in the form of demographic characteristics (age, gender, etc.) of the participant group and the exclusion criteria as the diseases that may influence the study, age ranges, cases involving pregnancy and lactation, continuously used drugs and participants’ cooperation.

The next stage is methodology. Methodology can be grouped under subheadings, namely, the calculation of number of subjects, blinding (masking), randomisation, selection of operation to be applied, use of placebo and criteria for stopping and changing the treatment.

I. Calculation of the Number of Subjects

The entire source from which the data are obtained is called a universe or population . A small group selected from a certain universe based on certain rules and which is accepted to highly represent the universe from which it is selected is called a sample and the characteristics of the population from which the data are collected are called variables. If data is collected from the entire population, such an instance is called a parameter . Conducting a study on the sample rather than the entire population is easier and less costly. Many factors influence the determination of the sample size. Firstly, the type of variable should be determined. Variables are classified as categorical (qualitative, non-numerical) or numerical (quantitative). Individuals in categorical variables are classified according to their characteristics. Categorical variables are indicated as nominal and ordinal (ordered). In nominal variables, the application of a category depends on the researcher’s preference. For instance, a female participant can be considered first and then the male participant, or vice versa. An ordinal (ordered) variable is ordered from small to large or vice versa (e.g. ordering obese patients based on their weights-from the lightest to the heaviest or vice versa). A categorical variable may have more than one characteristic: such variables are called binary or dichotomous (e.g. a participant may be both female and obese).

If the variable has numerical (quantitative) characteristics and these characteristics cannot be categorised, then it is called a numerical variable. Numerical variables are either discrete or continuous. For example, the number of operations with spinal anaesthesia represents a discrete variable. The haemoglobin value or height represents a continuous variable.

Statistical analyses that need to be employed depend on the type of variable. The determination of variables is necessary for selecting the statistical method as well as software in SPSS. While categorical variables are presented as numbers and percentages, numerical variables are represented using measures such as mean and standard deviation. It may be necessary to use mean in categorising some cases such as the following: even though the variable is categorical (qualitative, non-numerical) when Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) is used (since a numerical value is obtained), it is classified as a numerical variable: such variables are averaged.

Clinical research is carried out on the sample and generalised to the population. Accordingly, the number of samples should be correctly determined. Different sample size formulas are used on the basis of the statistical method to be used. When the sample size increases, error probability decreases. The sample size is calculated based on the primary hypothesis. The determination of a sample size before beginning the research specifies the power of the study. Power analysis enables the acquisition of realistic results in the research, and it is used for comparing two or more clinical research methods.

Because of the difference in the formulas used in calculating power analysis and number of samples for clinical research, it facilitates the use of computer programs for making calculations.

It is necessary to know certain parameters in order to calculate the number of samples by power analysis.

• Type-I (α) and type-II (β) error levels
• Difference between groups (d-difference) and effect size (ES)
• Distribution ratio of groups
• Direction of research hypothesis (H1)

a. Type-I (α) and Type-II (β) Error (β) Levels

Two types of errors can be made while accepting or rejecting H 0 hypothesis in a hypothesis test. Type-I error (α) level is the probability of finding a difference at the end of the research when there is no difference between the two applications. In other words, it is the rejection of the hypothesis when H 0 is actually correct and it is known as α error or p value. For instance, when the size is determined, type-I error level is accepted as 0.05 or 0.01.

Another error that can be made during a hypothesis test is a type-II error. It is the acceptance of a wrongly hypothesised H 0 hypothesis. In fact, it is the probability of failing to find a difference when there is a difference between the two applications. The power of a test is the ability of that test to find a difference that actually exists. Therefore, it is related to the type-II error level.

Since the type-II error risk is expressed as β, the power of the test is defined as 1–β. When a type-II error is 0.20, the power of the test is 0.80. Type-I (α) and type-II (β) errors can be intentional. The reason to intentionally make such an error is the necessity to look at the events from the opposite perspective.

b. Difference between Groups and ES

ES is defined as the state in which statistical difference also has clinically significance: ES≥0.5 is desirable. The difference between groups is the absolute difference between the groups compared in clinical research.

c. Allocation Ratio of Groups

The allocation ratio of groups is effective in determining the number of samples. If the number of samples is desired to be determined at the lowest level, the rate should be kept as 1/1.

d. Direction of Hypothesis (H1)

The direction of hypothesis in clinical research may be one-sided or two-sided. While one-sided hypotheses hypothesis test differences in the direction of size, two-sided hypotheses hypothesis test differences without direction. The power of the test in two-sided hypotheses is lower than one-sided hypotheses.

After these four variables are determined, they are entered in the appropriate computer program and the number of samples is calculated. Statistical packaged software programs such as Statistica, NCSS and G-Power may be used for power analysis and calculating the number of samples. When the samples size is calculated, if there is a decrease in α, difference between groups, ES and number of samples, then the standard deviation increases and power decreases. The power in two-sided hypothesis is lower. It is ethically appropriate to consider the determination of sample size, particularly in animal experiments, at the beginning of the study. The phase of the study is also important in the determination of number of subjects to be included in drug studies. Usually, phase-I studies are used to determine the safety profile of a drug or product, and they are generally conducted on a few healthy volunteers. If no unacceptable toxicity is detected during phase-I studies, phase-II studies may be carried out. Phase-II studies are proof-of-concept studies conducted on a larger number (100–500) of volunteer patients. When the effectiveness of the drug or product is evident in phase-II studies, phase-III studies can be initiated. These are randomised, double-blinded, placebo or standard treatment-controlled studies. Volunteer patients are periodically followed-up with respect to the effectiveness and side effects of the drug. It can generally last 1–4 years and is valuable during licensing and releasing the drug to the general market. Then, phase-IV studies begin in which long-term safety is investigated (indication, dose, mode of application, safety, effectiveness, etc.) on thousands of volunteer patients.

II. Blinding (Masking) and Randomisation Methods

When the methodology of clinical research is prepared, precautions should be taken to prevent taking sides. For this reason, techniques such as randomisation and blinding (masking) are used. Comparative studies are the most ideal ones in clinical research.

Blinding Method

A case in which the treatments applied to participants of clinical research should be kept unknown is called the blinding method . If the participant does not know what it receives, it is called a single-blind study; if even the researcher does not know, it is called a double-blind study. When there is a probability of knowing which drug is given in the order of application, when uninformed staff administers the drug, it is called in-house blinding. In case the study drug is known in its pharmaceutical form, a double-dummy blinding test is conducted. Intravenous drug is given to one group and a placebo tablet is given to the comparison group; then, the placebo tablet is given to the group that received the intravenous drug and intravenous drug in addition to placebo tablet is given to the comparison group. In this manner, each group receives both the intravenous and tablet forms of the drug. In case a third party interested in the study is involved and it also does not know about the drug (along with the statistician), it is called third-party blinding.

Randomisation Method

The selection of patients for the study groups should be random. Randomisation methods are used for such selection, which prevent conscious or unconscious manipulations in the selection of patients ( 8 ).

No factor pertaining to the patient should provide preference of one treatment to the other during randomisation. This characteristic is the most important difference separating randomised clinical studies from prospective and synchronous studies with experimental groups. Randomisation strengthens the study design and enables the determination of reliable scientific knowledge ( 2 ).

The easiest method is simple randomisation, e.g. determination of the type of anaesthesia to be administered to a patient by tossing a coin. In this method, when the number of samples is kept high, a balanced distribution is created. When the number of samples is low, there will be an imbalance between the groups. In this case, stratification and blocking have to be added to randomisation. Stratification is the classification of patients one or more times according to prognostic features determined by the researcher and blocking is the selection of a certain number of patients for each stratification process. The number of stratification processes should be determined at the beginning of the study.

As the number of stratification processes increases, performing the study and balancing the groups become difficult. For this reason, stratification characteristics and limitations should be effectively determined at the beginning of the study. It is not mandatory for the stratifications to have equal intervals. Despite all the precautions, an imbalance might occur between the groups before beginning the research. In such circumstances, post-stratification or restandardisation may be conducted according to the prognostic factors.

The main characteristic of applying blinding (masking) and randomisation is the prevention of bias. Therefore, it is worthwhile to comprehensively examine bias at this stage.

Bias and Chicanery

While conducting clinical research, errors can be introduced voluntarily or involuntarily at a number of stages, such as design, population selection, calculating the number of samples, non-compliance with study protocol, data entry and selection of statistical method. Bias is taking sides of individuals in line with their own decisions, views and ideological preferences ( 9 ). In order for an error to lead to bias, it has to be a systematic error. Systematic errors in controlled studies generally cause the results of one group to move in a different direction as compared to the other. It has to be understood that scientific research is generally prone to errors. However, random errors (or, in other words, ‘the luck factor’-in which bias is unintended-do not lead to bias ( 10 ).

Another issue, which is different from bias, is chicanery. It is defined as voluntarily changing the interventions, results and data of patients in an unethical manner or copying data from other studies. Comparatively, bias may not be done consciously.

In case unexpected results or outliers are found while the study is analysed, if possible, such data should be re-included into the study since the complete exclusion of data from a study endangers its reliability. In such a case, evaluation needs to be made with and without outliers. It is insignificant if no difference is found. However, if there is a difference, the results with outliers are re-evaluated. If there is no error, then the outlier is included in the study (as the outlier may be a result). It should be noted that re-evaluation of data in anaesthesiology is not possible.

Statistical evaluation methods should be determined at the design stage so as not to encounter unexpected results in clinical research. The data should be evaluated before the end of the study and without entering into details in research that are time-consuming and involve several samples. This is called an interim analysis . The date of interim analysis should be determined at the beginning of the study. The purpose of making interim analysis is to prevent unnecessary cost and effort since it may be necessary to conclude the research after the interim analysis, e.g. studies in which there is no possibility to validate the hypothesis at the end or the occurrence of different side effects of the drug to be used. The accuracy of the hypothesis and number of samples are compared. Statistical significance levels in interim analysis are very important. If the data level is significant, the hypothesis is validated even if the result turns out to be insignificant after the date of the analysis.

Another important point to be considered is the necessity to conclude the participants’ treatment within the period specified in the study protocol. When the result of the study is achieved earlier and unexpected situations develop, the treatment is concluded earlier. Moreover, the participant may quit the study at its own behest, may die or unpredictable situations (e.g. pregnancy) may develop. The participant can also quit the study whenever it wants, even if the study has not ended ( 7 ).

In case the results of a study are contrary to already known or expected results, the expected quality level of the study suggesting the contradiction may be higher than the studies supporting what is known in that subject. This type of bias is called confirmation bias. The presence of well-known mechanisms and logical inference from them may create problems in the evaluation of data. This is called plausibility bias.

Another type of bias is expectation bias. If a result different from the known results has been achieved and it is against the editor’s will, it can be challenged. Bias may be introduced during the publication of studies, such as publishing only positive results, selection of study results in a way to support a view or prevention of their publication. Some editors may only publish research that extols only the positive results or results that they desire.

Bias may be introduced for advertisement or economic reasons. Economic pressure may be applied on the editor, particularly in the cases of studies involving drugs and new medical devices. This is called commercial bias.

In recent years, before beginning a study, it has been recommended to record it on the Web site www.clinicaltrials.gov for the purpose of facilitating systematic interpretation and analysis in scientific research, informing other researchers, preventing bias, provision of writing in a standard format, enhancing contribution of research results to the general literature and enabling early intervention of an institution for support. This Web site is a service of the US National Institutes of Health.

The last stage in the methodology of clinical studies is the selection of intervention to be conducted. Placebo use assumes an important place in interventions. In Latin, placebo means ‘I will be fine’. In medical literature, it refers to substances that are not curative, do not have active ingredients and have various pharmaceutical forms. Although placebos do not have active drug characteristic, they have shown effective analgesic characteristics, particularly in algology applications; further, its use prevents bias in comparative studies. If a placebo has a positive impact on a participant, it is called the placebo effect ; on the contrary, if it has a negative impact, it is called the nocebo effect . Another type of therapy that can be used in clinical research is sham application. Although a researcher does not cure the patient, the researcher may compare those who receive therapy and undergo sham. It has been seen that sham therapies also exhibit a placebo effect. In particular, sham therapies are used in acupuncture applications ( 11 ). While placebo is a substance, sham is a type of clinical application.

Ethically, the patient has to receive appropriate therapy. For this reason, if its use prevents effective treatment, it causes great problem with regard to patient health and legalities.

Before medical research is conducted with human subjects, predictable risks, drawbacks and benefits must be evaluated for individuals or groups participating in the study. Precautions must be taken for reducing the risk to a minimum level. The risks during the study should be followed, evaluated and recorded by the researcher ( 1 ).

After the methodology for a clinical study is determined, dealing with the ‘Ethics Committee’ forms the next stage. The purpose of the ethics committee is to protect the rights, safety and well-being of volunteers taking part in the clinical research, considering the scientific method and concerns of society. The ethics committee examines the studies presented in time, comprehensively and independently, with regard to ethics and science; in line with the Declaration of Helsinki and following national and international standards concerning ‘Good Clinical Practice’. The method to be followed in the formation of the ethics committee should be developed without any kind of prejudice and to examine the applications with regard to ethics and science within the framework of the ethics committee, Regulation on Clinical Trials and Good Clinical Practice ( www.iku.com ). The necessary documents to be presented to the ethics committee are research protocol, volunteer consent form, budget contract, Declaration of Helsinki, curriculum vitae of researchers, similar or explanatory literature samples, supporting institution approval certificate and patient follow-up form.

Only one sister/brother, mother, father, son/daughter and wife/husband can take charge in the same ethics committee. A rector, vice rector, dean, deputy dean, provincial healthcare director and chief physician cannot be members of the ethics committee.

Members of the ethics committee can work as researchers or coordinators in clinical research. However, during research meetings in which members of the ethics committee are researchers or coordinators, they must leave the session and they cannot sign-off on decisions. If the number of members in the ethics committee for a particular research is so high that it is impossible to take a decision, the clinical research is presented to another ethics committee in the same province. If there is no ethics committee in the same province, an ethics committee in the closest settlement is found.

Thereafter, researchers need to inform the participants using an informed consent form. This form should explain the content of clinical study, potential benefits of the study, alternatives and risks (if any). It should be easy, comprehensible, conforming to spelling rules and written in plain language understandable by the participant.

This form assists the participants in taking a decision regarding participation in the study. It should aim to protect the participants. The participant should be included in the study only after it signs the informed consent form; the participant can quit the study whenever required, even when the study has not ended ( 7 ).

Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed.

Author Contributions: Concept - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Design - C.Ö.Ç.; Supervision - A.D.; Resource - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Materials - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Analysis and/or Interpretation - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Literature Search - C.Ö.Ç.; Writing Manuscript - C.Ö.Ç.; Critical Review - A.D.; Other - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.

Conflict of Interest: No conflict of interest was declared by the authors.

Financial Disclosure: The authors declared that this study has received no financial support.

Research scholar program

The Research Scholar Program aims to support early-career professors who are pursuing research in fields relevant to Google.

The Research Scholar Program provides unrestricted gifts to support research at institutions around the world, and is focused on funding world-class research conducted by early-career professors.

Program details

Application status, award information, eligibility criteria, funding amounts, supporting cutting-edge research, award recipients.

Applications are currently closed.

Decisions for the November 2023 application will be announced via email by April 2024. Please check back in Fall 2024 for details on future application cycles.

We encourage submissions from professors globally who are teaching at universities and meet the eligibility requirements. It is our hope that this program will help develop collaborations with new professors and encourage the formation of long-term relationships.

Awards are disbursed as unrestricted gifts to the university and are not intended for overhead or indirect costs. They are intended for use during the academic year in which the award is provided to support the professor’s research efforts.

• Post doctoral staff can only serve as a co-PI, not a primary PI.
• We consider exceptions for applicants who have been teaching seven years or fewer and had delays, such as working in industry, parental leave, leave of absence, etc. This exception request can be documented on the application.
• Faculty can only serve as a PI or Co-PI per round. Applicants cannot serve on two separate proposals.
• Applicants can apply a maximum of 3 times within the 7 years post-PhD.

The funds granted will be up to $60,000 USD and are intended to support the advancement of the professor’s research.

Algorithms and optimization

Our team conducts research in graph mining, optimization, operations research, and market algorithms to improve Google's infrastructure, machine learning, and marketplaces. We collaborate with teams across Google and perform research in related areas, such as algorithmic foundations of machine learning, distributed optimization, economics, and data mining.

Health research

Google Health research aims to advance AI and technology to help people live healthier lives through collaborative research with public officials, clinicians, and consumers. We are developing tools to understand population health, novel algorithms to better understand and use complex medical data, and technology to help people find high-quality health information and understand their health status.

We invite proposals that will generate and understand large datasets to improve population health, develop novel algorithms for better understanding of complex medical data, and develop novel methods to extract health insights cheaper, faster, or better.

Machine learning and data mining

Machine learning is the foundation of Google's research, with a broad scope that includes foundational and algorithmic work, critical real-world applications, and topics, such as federated learning, information retrieval, learning theory, optimization, reinforcement learning, robotics, and recommender systems.

Natural language processing

Our team comprises multiple research groups working on a wide range of natural language understanding and generation projects. Our researchers are focused on advancing the state of the art in natural language technologies and accelerating adoption everywhere for the benefit of the user. Natural language processing and understanding plays a major role in driving Google’s company-wide OKRs as language understanding is the key to unlocking Google’s approach: “Build a more helpful Google for everyone that increases the world’s knowledge, success, health, and happiness.”

Quantum computing

The Quantum AI team is developing an error-corrected quantum computer and discovering valuable applications by offering a quantum computing service. We collaborate with academic partners to advance both goals, so if you have a quantum algorithm you would like to run on our service, please submit a proposal.

Software engineering and programming languages

Research on all aspects of software development, including the engineers and the programming languages, libraries, development tools, and processes that they use.

Fundamental and applied science

Large language, visual, and multimodal models have made significant advances in recent years, opening up new possibilities for scientific research. We invite proposals in these four areas:

• Applications : Proposals that demonstrate how large language models can be used to advance scientific discovery in a specific field.
• Foundations : Proposals that explore broad advances in building, tuning, or deploying large models for scientific research, such as integrating language models with specialized scientific tools, developing multimodal models for understanding scientific data, and accelerating scientific analysis, experimentation, and summarization.
• Evaluation : Proposals that develop datasets or methods for benchmarking and evaluating large models for science, including evaluating domain-specific knowledge, assessing factuality and grounding, evaluating multimodal capabilities, and developing tasks that require multi-step scientific reasoning.
• HCI : Proposals that enhance scientific workflows, such as automating complex simulation pipelines, with large language models and human-in-the-loop interaction.

Human-computer interaction

HCI researchers at Google design and build large-scale interactive systems that aim to be humane, simple-to-understand, and delightful to use. We work across a variety of HCI disciplines, including predictive and intelligent user interfaces, mobile and ubiquitous computing, social and collaborative computing, and interactive visualization.

Machine perception

Machine perception researchers at Google develop algorithms and systems to tackle a wide range of tasks, including action recognition, object recognition and detection, hand-writing recognition, audio understanding, perceptual similarity measures, and image and video compression.

Google's privacy research reaches across multiple teams, focusing on different aspects of privacy to advance the state of the art and develop tools to protect users and give them control over their data. This includes work on privacy-preserving technologies using cryptography and differential privacy, machine learning for privacy, user interface design and human-computer interactions to make communication clear and empower users, privacy policy to define Google's guiding principles for user protection, and system analysis and measurement to develop techniques to evaluate the privacy health of Google's systems.

Google's security and anti-abuse research team brings together experts from multiple disciplines to defend users from a wide range of threats. This includes work on access control, information security, networking, operating systems, language design, cryptography, fraud detection, machine learning for abuse detection, denial of service, emerging threats, user interfaces, and other human-centered aspects of security.

Systems and networking systems

Google's systems and networking systems research is focused on building and deploying novel systems at unprecedented scale. Our work spans the entire spectrum of computing, from large-scale distributed systems to individual machines to accelerator technologies.

We address fundamental questions around data center architecture, cloud virtual networking, wide-area network interconnects, software-defined networking, machine learning for networking, large-scale management infrastructure, congestion control, bandwidth management, capacity planning, and designing networks to meet traffic demands.

What is the evaluation criteria when assessing proposals?

To ensure fairness, we use a scoring rubric for consistency across reviews. We look at the criteria below to assess proposals. Proposals must comply with the required format and other Research Scholar Program guidelines.

• Faculty Merit : Faculty is accomplished in research, community engagement, and open source contributions, with potential to contribute to responsible innovation.
• Research Merit : Faculty's proposed research is aligned with Google Research interests, innovative, and likely to have a significant impact on the field.
• Proposal Quality : The research proposal is clear, focused, and well-organized, and it demonstrates the team's ability to successfully execute the research and achieve a significant impact.
• Broadening Participation : Faculty is committed to broadening participation in computing through their work on a variety of initiatives, including, for example, designing and deploying programs, and training and mentoring students from historically marginalized groups.
• AI Ethics Principles : The research proposal strongly aligns with Google's AI Principles .

What are the steps for the selection process?

• November: Applications open
• December/January: Proposal reviews and scoring
• February: Committee reviews proposals, scoring and make selections
• March: Approval process for selected proposals
• April: Applicants are notified of decision

We completely understand the desire to receive feedback and do our best to meet this request. However, due to the high volume of applications received, you may not receive feedback on your proposal.

To ensure fairness, we use a scoring rubric for consistency across reviews.

How many times can I apply for the Research Scholar program?

Faculty may apply up to a maximum of 3 times within the 7 years they received their PhD.

Can I receive this award more than once?

Faculty can receive a Research Scholar award only once. Previous Faculty Research Award recipients are still eligible to receive a Research Scholar award.

Who is eligible to apply for the Research Scholar Program?

Institutions:

• We accept applications from full-time faculty at universities around the world. Funding is focused on supporting the faculty’s research. We do not allow applications from non-degree-granting research institutions.
• Since our funding is structured as unrestricted gifts to degree-granting Universities, we cannot process awards to other institutions (e.g. not-for-profits institutions, hospitals, non-degree-granting research institutes, etc) even if they are affiliated with a University. A Principal Investigator must apply in his or her capacity as a university professor and must be able to accept an award through that University.

Principal Investigator Requirements:

• Global faculty who have received their PhD less than 7 years from submission from degree-granting institutions who are doing research within fields relevant to Google.
• An applicant may only serve as Principal Investigator or co-Principal Investigator on one proposal per round, they cannot be listed on two separate proposals.
• We understand that titles may differ globally. In order for someone without the title of professor to apply, he or she must be a full-time faculty member at an eligible institution and serve as a formal advisor to masters or PhD students. We may, at our discretion, provide funding for Principal Investigators who advise undergraduate students at colleges that do not award advanced degrees.

Past Applicants:

• If an applicant’s proposal was not selected for funding the previous round, they are welcome to apply with a new proposal (or substantively revised proposal) the following round. A Principal Investigator can apply a maximum of 3 times within the 7 years post-PhD.

How do I apply for the Research Scholar Program?

The application process includes filling out an online form requesting basic information and uploading a PDF proposal via the form. As part of the online form, you will be asked to select a topic area. Please select carefully, as this will help us in ensuring your proposal is read by the appropriate reviewers. Do not send any confidential or proprietary information in your proposal. Any information you send us as part of your application will be considered not confidential regardless of any markings or designations on it.

I have a social science background, can I still apply?

Yes. We focus on funding social science research that looks at technology's implications and impacts on individuals and society. We typically review submissions from fields like human-computer interaction, psychology, and science and technology studies, as well as research in computer science fields with a strong emphasis on the human experience.

What is the proper format for a Research Scholar proposal?

• The proposal should be a maximum of 5 pages if you are a sole Principal Investigator.
• If you choose not to include the co-Principal Investigator’s CV then your proposal should only be 5 pages.
• The extra 2 pages will only accommodate for an additional CV, not for additional proposal content.
• The maximum page limit includes the 2-page CV of the primary Principal Investigator, which is required for all applications (again a 2-page CV for a co-Principal Investigator is optional).
• To be fair to you and others, we do not consider proposals longer than the maximum page limit.
• We request a Google Scholar profile link as part of the online application form. Our reviewers find it helpful to be able to easily reference a Principal Investigator's publication history to see how the current proposal relates to past work the Principal Investigator has done in relevant fields. The Google Scholar profile complements, but does not replace, the Principal Investigator's 2-page CV.
• We do not require a budget breakdown since we have flat funding amounts we will grant based on region.
• We would prefer proposals to respect a minimum 10pt font size and 1-inch (2.5-cm) margins. Our reviewers value readability.
• Below is an example of what a proposal may look like (though the relative length of each section may differ by proposal).

Proposal Format

• Proposal Title
• Principal Investigator full name, contact information (postal address, email address, phone), affiliation (university, school, college and/or department)
• Research goals, including a problem statement.
• Description of the work you'd like to do, as well as the expected outcomes and results.
• How this relates to prior work in the area (including your own, if relevant)
• References, where applicable.
• Our goal is to support work where the output will be made available to the broader research community. To that end, we ask that you provide us with a few sentences sharing what you intend to do with the output of your project (e.g. open sourcing code, making data sets public, etc.). Please note that the awards are structured as unrestricted gifts, so there are no legal requirements once a project is selected for funding. This is simply a statement of your current intentions.
• The maximum length of a Principal Investigator CV is two pages. Any submitted CV that is longer than 2 pages may be cut off at two pages before the proposal review process begins.
• We require a CV for at least the primary Principal Investigator on the proposal. We will accept CVs from each of the Principal Investigators listed on the proposal (up to two are allowed). Each CV must be limited to two pages.

Should I add a budget breakdown in my proposal?

Please do not include budget details in your proposal. We will be providing flat funding amounts based on the cost of student tuition on a regional basis.

How much funds will I get if I am awarded?

We provide support up to $60,000 USD depending on the cost of student tuition on a regional basis.

I am not eligible for this program, how can I apply to other programs?

Our website is consistently updated with new programs we offer. We encourage you to connect with our Google researchers at conferences to build more opportunities for applying to research grants.

Are Research Scholar Awards eligible for extensions?

The program is designed to support one year of work. If you are selected as a recipient of a Research Scholar award, we will partner you with a Google sponsor who can navigate the potential of an extension.

Does the co-PI need to meet the same eligibility criteria as the primary PI?

Yes, the co-PI must meet the same eligibility criteria as the primary PI. We are providing an exception if the co-PI is a postdoctoral researcher.

Can I speak to someone from the Research Scholar team to ask additional questions?

We will be providing limited email support via [email protected] . Due to the volume of emails we receive, we may not be able to respond to questions where the answer is available on the website.

Open advice to Google Research Awards proposal writers

As a part of the group of engineers that review proposals for this program, we read a lot of proposals. We'd like to read more good proposals. Here's some advice on how you can improve the content of your short proposal and make reviewing it easier.

A good research grant proposal:

• Clearly specifies a problem. Good research is driven by a great problem or question, and a good proposal starts with a clearly specified one.
• Describes a specific, credible, relevant outcome. Try to identify a specific and appropriately sized outcome, to give us a clear notion of what the research award would be enabling. What will likely come to be that might otherwise not happen? While this outcome should be a decisive step towards achieving your vision, it generally won't be adequate to completely achieve it. It often helps to describe both the minimum that is likely to be accomplished and a potential best-case. Since picking the right datasets and test cases is often important, tell us which ones you plan to use.
• Crisply differentiates the proposed contribution from prior work. Please apply normal practices (citations, etc.) for documenting how your work will materially advance the state of the art. Make it clear how your work will be changing the state of the art, and not simply trying to match it.
• Tells us how the research challenge(s) will be addressed. Successful research projects combine a great problem with ideas for solutions, too. We recognize that all the answers won't be known yet, but we'd like to feel that the direction has been established, and a plausible path has been identified. (Try to avoid proposals of the form "We want to look at problem X".) It's hard to have a big impact without taking risks, but please identify what the difficulties are likely to be and how you plan to mitigate them. It may help to explain how you succeeded in addressing analogous problems in other projects.
• Puts the proposed work in context. Most projects we fund also have support from other sources. To help us understand the expected impact of Google support, please explain what funding you already have for this area of research and how the proposed work relates to your existing plans. Do you plan to build a capability for other research, provide a tool, reproduce a prior result, collaborate with others to try something out, follow up on a promising idea, or explore a new one? All are potentially of interest; we just want to know.
• Makes the case to a non-expert. While we try to have your proposal reviewed by a Google expert in your field, it will also be read by non-experts, so please make at least the motivation and outcomes broadly accessible.

See past Research Scholar program recipients

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• DOI: 10.5861/ijrsm.2023.1088
• Corpus ID: 261037414

Employee motivation, work attitude and work performance in manufacturing enterprises in China: Inputs to innovative manufacturing performance framework

• Mingzhu Xie
• Published in International Journal of… 25 August 2023
• Business, Economics

One Reference

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• Innovation in Learning Center

14th Annual South Alabama Conference on Teaching and Learning

Monday, May 6 | 6pm - 8pm (CST)

Dinner and performance by the South Alabama Indian Music Ensemble (SOLD OUT)

Tuesday, May 7 | 9am - 3:30pm (CST)

Wednesday, May 8 | 9am - 3:30pm (CST)

Theme: Relevance, Reflection, & Relationships

Whether we are ourselves in the classroom or supporting the success of those actively engaged in teaching and learning, we collectively lead students to make connections and identify the value of what they are learning, such as the skills and competencies to support their journey beyond the classroom. This year’s theme challenges you to investigate and share practices related to Relevance, Reflection, and Relationships, aligning educational content and activities with building community, self-efficacy, and self-awareness. Guiding questions include:

• How do you incorporate skills and competencies in your courses and programs that are valuable to students beyond the classroom? How do you advertise the relevance of these skills?
• What instructional practices help students make connections between the target content and their previous experiences to become more self-directed learners? How have you used reflection to lead students to see the value of their experiences in your class or program?
• What relationship-building practices do you utilize in your institutional role?

Contributed presentation topics may include practices related to Relevance, Reflection, and Relationships within your instruction, such as designing learner and value-centered courses, alternative assessments that incorporate reflections and connections with employer-valued skills, group activities that intentionally include trust-building to boost students’ comfort level and a welcoming environment, and transparent course design and lessons. As our courses span face-to-face, hybrid/blended, or fully online teaching environments, you may also wish to highlight the overlap between educational technology, generative AI, and this year’s theme, such as intentional uses of AI, social annotation tools, and discussion-based software.

As a partnership between USA, Spring Hill College, University of Mobile, Bishop State, Coastal Alabama, and Mississippi Gulf Coast, this conference reaches a diverse audience, all of whom are engaged in a variety of ways of supporting students. This year’s theme, “Relevance, Reflection, and Relationships,” allows us to highlight practices that boost learner success inside and outside of the classroom. 

Through a variety of presentation formats including workshops, panels, research talks and a poster session, we invite you to share your scholarly work in an inviting, supportive, and peer-reviewed conference tailored to the needs of instructors along the Gulf Coast.

Keynote Speakers

Marjorie Hass is a philosopher, leader, award-winning teacher, mentor, author, and one of the most influential thinkers in the independent higher education sector. She has led the Council of Independent Colleges since 2021. She will expand on the theme of Relevance and the role of higher education in preserving and promoting the value of the liberal arts and sciences as foundational to a civic education.

Clausell Mathis is a physicist and science educator at Michigan State University where his research focuses on understanding how science teachers can effectively incorporate culture-based pedagogical approaches to instruction. His work spans teacher identity, student sense-making and utilizing cultural resources towards achieving understanding, especially in the sciences.

Presentation Types

Interactive Workshops | Panels | Research Talks | Roundtables | Poster Exhibits

This year, we are weaving in-person and virtual options together on the first day of the conference. When submitting a proposal, please indicate if you prefer to present in-person or online. Virtual presentations will be shared with our in-person and virtual audience via Zoom in one room in the student center. Virtual presenters and participants will be able to view other virtual presenters and the keynote speakers.

Points of Contact

Dr. S. Raj Chaudhury , Innovation in Learning Center, [email protected] Dr. Lisa LaCross , Innovation in Learning Center, [email protected]

2024 Conference Partners

Ela Leshem ’20 Joins Fordham Law Faculty — and Animal Law’s Scholarly Growth

Ela Leshem ’20 was recently appointed Associate Professor of Law at Fordham University School of Law. She is among the recent Yale Law School graduates — including Lingxi Chenyang ’20 and Jack Whiteley ’18 — who have entered law teaching with an interest in issues of nonhuman animals and the law. 

The Law, Ethics & Animals Program (LEAP) at Yale Law School and its supporter, the Brooks Institute for Animal Rights Law & Policy share a goal to promote the strengthening and expansion of animal law as a scholarly field. This year, LEAP Student Fellow Maggie Wang ’25 was among the recipients of the Brooks Emerging Scholar Fellowship, designed to increase the number of legal academics in the United States who are committed to making animal law a significant component of their teaching and research. LEAP works to produce scholarship about the legal, scientific, and moral questions raised by humanity’s treatment of other animals, and to empower Yale scholars and students to create positive legal and political change for animals, people, and their environment.

Leshem is a legal theorist focusing on property and personhood status issues, including those relating to human bodies, animals, fetuses, artificial intelligence, and more. Her most recent paper, “ Dead Bodies as Quasi-Persons ,” argues that U.S. law treats dead bodies as entities with moral status between things and persons and was published by the Vanderbilt Law Review in May. 

Prior to joining Fordham, Leshem was a fellow at the Senate Judiciary Committee and clerked for Chief Judge David Barron of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit. While studying law at Yale, she was editor-in-chief of the Yale Law Journal. Leshem studied music at the University of the Arts in Bern, Switzerland and the State University of Music in Stuttgart, Germany and received a doctorate in philosophy and masters in political theory at Oxford University on a Rhodes Scholarship.

LEAP Postgraduate Fellow spoke with Leshem about her scholarship and plans for future research.

Your scholarship centers around the personhood status of “liminal” beings or entities. How did you become interested in these questions?

I came to law from moral and political philosophy and found myself drawn to legal questions that are subject to deep moral disagreements. Few moral disagreements seemed as intractable and legally consequential to me as disagreements over who or what should count as a person. What should have moral status, as opposed to being just a thing that we can treat as property. Contemporary examples of entities whose personhood is contested include animals, fetuses, religious artifacts, and increasingly also artificial intelligence.

Focusing on your recent paper, “Dead Bodies as Quasi-Persons,” in what ways do you see American law treating dead bodies as “quasi-persons” versus another legal status? How do your conclusions bear on the legal status of other legal entities, e.g., nonhuman animals? 

U.S. laws tend to attribute a moral status to dead human bodies that falls well above that of a mere thing, but also well below that of a full moral person. I call this in-between moral status “quasi-personhood.” U.S. laws tend to treat dead bodies as quasi-persons in many different contexts: laws protecting dead bodies against denigration to the status of property, waste, or nonhuman animals; laws ensuring that dead bodies be treated as individuals with names; and laws protecting dead bodies against visual, physical, and sexual abuse. Throughout, these legal protections tend to attribute a narrow set of dignity interests to dead bodies — hence, their quasi-personhood status.

All this matters for nonhuman animals. Angela Fernandez has argued that our laws treat nonhuman animals, too, as quasi-persons. That is, U.S. laws attribute a narrow set of moral interests to nonhuman animals. And while that puts nonhuman animals above mere things, it also places them well below full moral persons. So quasi-personhood is a descriptive reality that animal law scholars and animal rights activists need to grapple with when they advocate for greater status recognition for nonhuman animals. Here, my paper’s analysis of the law’s treatment of dead bodies as quasi-persons might help in at least two ways. One is that it unearths a longstanding legal precedent for recognizing that the human treatment of quasi-persons is limited by a duty of care, which prevents an exploitative property treatment. So even if for some nonhuman animals, quasi-personhood treatment were all that is either feasible or desirable, there is precedent for protecting nonhuman animals, as quasi-persons, in much more robust ways than is currently the case. 

Another contribution I hope my paper makes to the debates over nonhuman animals’ status is to show how far an internal critique of our treatment of quasi-persons can go. I devote much of the paper to arguing that our lesser treatment of some dead bodies on the basis of class or race is wrongful, regardless of what status dead bodies ought to have in the abstract. Similarly, I think we often need not persuade people that certain nonhuman animals are full moral persons to expose the wrongfulness of their current mistreatment.

Looking forward, where do plan to focus your research efforts next? Do you have any ongoing or planned projects you can discuss?

I’ll discuss two of my current projects. In one, my coauthor and I are arguing that the Supreme Court’s landmark First Amendment decisions protecting flag burning turn on a neglected status question with broad ramifications: whether the American flag is a quasi-person or just a symbol. The other project grew out of my paper on dead bodies and bears more directly on nonhuman animals: it grapples with the ways in which U.S. laws sometimes rely on the subordination of nonhuman animals to give meaning to the concept of human dignity.

In the Press

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Call for Applications: Scholars Transforming Through Research Program

The Council on Undergraduate Research (CUR) is accepting submissions for their Scholars Transforming Through Research (STR) program. This advocacy professional development opportunity is designed for faculty/mentors and undergraduate research students. The program runs from November 2024 to March 2025, with a final in-person session in Washington, DC.

Apply by September 20, 2024. More information available here.

The STR Program aims to teach participants how to communicate the impact of undergraduate research beyond academia. Key topics include:

- Setting goals and finding inspiration - Building relationships with policymakers - Op-Ed writing and pitching - Policy brief writing - Conducting media interviews - Communicating research on Capitol Hill

Participants apply as institutional teams consisting of a faculty/mentor lead and up to three undergraduate research students. The program includes monthly online training sessions from November to February, culminating in a mandatory in-person session in Washington, DC on March 2-3, 2025. This final session includes meetings with stakeholders and congressional representatives.

"The STR Program is a valuable resource for teaching your undergraduate research students communication tools for translating research into understandable language while also communicating the impact, potential impact, and opportunities this research can have," states CUR.

For questions, contact [email protected] or call (202) 783-4810.

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UT Embedded Scholars

Bridging Borders: Cultural and Political Thoughts from a Texan in Santiago 

By Taylor Crownover 

Upon arriving in Santiago, Chile, it dawned on me that I was further south than I had ever been in my life! Despite this, the time difference with Texas is just one hour ahead. Here I am, on the opposite side of the world, yet aligned longitudinally with my home. This realization has persisted throughout my first month in Chile, where cultural differences are strikingly evident, yet abounding moments of familiarity are also present as I continue immersing myself in the city. 

Santiago sits in a valley alongside the ‘cordillera’ — the massive snow-covered Andes Mountain Range. From many lookout points in the city you can see sprawling neighborhoods, the tallest building in South America, parks, and old churches extending seemingly forever into the distance. The city contains almost 50% of Chile’s entire population and the infrastructure to support it is incredible! Coming from Texas, which is severely lacking in public transit, the extensive metro and bus system is a welcome treat. Being located in the opposite hemisphere means that June and July are the middle of winter which was a bit of an adjustment for me. No snow in the city, but the autumn leaves and cold morning air are truly refreshing, and I am happy to skip the Texas summer inferno.

Despite the apparent initial geographic differences, the more time I spent with my Chilean host family and being oriented to the International IDEA fellowship, the more political similarities I noticed between Chile and the United States. The week I arrived, Chilean President Gabriel Boric was hosting the biannual State of the Union, discussing many of the same issues we face in the United States. The rise in renewable energy in the country, the need for more jobs or higher wages, contentious debates about reproductive rights, uncertainties with the uptick of immigration from nearby countries, and overall stark political divisions within the population. Due to a high relative GDP and history of democracy and free market development in the country, Chile is undergoing many similar social processes as the United States. 

International IDEA opened its Chile country office in 2022 to support the constitutional reform process that was taking place. Chile’s constitutional reform process was initiated in 2016 and renewed in 2019 due to extensive citizen protests for improved social protections for things such as pension reform, low wages, and rising economic inequality. Unfortunately, the government and citizens were unable to come to a consensus on a new constitution after two different proposals were brought to referendums. However, these events have raised awareness about these social issues, and national governments and organizations like International IDEA are paying increased attention to democratic rights in Chile and South America. The Chilean National Congress collaborates with IDEA by soliciting information about international policies relevant to the country’s goals, such as environmental policy, civic participation, and gender equality. 

As an IDEA fellow, I jumped straight into the projects the office is working on to provide support to the Chilean government. The first project focused on an upcoming environmental legislation seminar IDEA was hosting with international experts, including a French ambassador, to share strategies for effectively enhancing sustainability through government policy. I researched recent Chilean environmental legislation and discovered the country’s 2022 laws that reaffirmed its commitment to the Paris Climate Agreement and its 2050 carbon neutrality target. This is especially significant as Chile’s economy has long been based on mining and extracting valuable minerals, including copper, gold, and silver from the Atacama Desert. Additionally, the country has faced extreme drought in the past 10 years, but in the past two years it has experienced heavy rains and flooding. Legislating environmental protections is thus incredibly pertinent as climate change continually impacts the country’s natural resources.

Chile’s new environmental legislation also included an increased push towards renewable energy infrastructure. The country’s diverse geography, ranging from deserts and beaches to high mountains, volcanoes, long coastline, ocean resources, and expansive fields, positions it favorably to harness virtually every form of renewable energy available. As the international community shifts its focus towards green energy transitions, Chile emerges as a pivotal partner crucial to the success of this global effort. Currently, the European Union receives about 80% of its lithium from Chilean mines. Lithium is critical for the green energy transition, as lithium batteries are the most efficient way to store and transport renewable energy. Thus, in late 2023, the European Union ratified a major trade agreement with Chile to exchange knowledge, resources, and raw materials between the regions with virtually no international tax for either party.

I am now supporting the IDEA office on a new request from the Chilean National Congress to collect information on digitalization and technological innovation within the government. We are specifically analyzing how similar countries and entities, including Italy, Germany, and the European Parliament, are integrating new forms of technology into their administrative processes to facilitate better intergovernmental communication. One of the major complaints for governments globally is the slow progress and poor communication with the citizens of what is happening behind closed doors. By transitioning to digital work, the Chilean National Congress can draft proposals more easily, improve collaboration between committees, and process legislation efficiently. Additionally, maintaining online databases of political information makes it more readily available to the general public which creates more opportunities for citizens to understand and to participate in local politics.

Having reliable avenues to easily participate in government is one of the keys to increasing civic engagement and mitigating democratic disaffection in the population. Chile is making progress in this sphere, beginning in 2019 with the passage of the State Digital Transformation Law, which details a plan to become 100% digital by 2027. Chile is also investigating how to utilize artificial intelligence in administrative duties, holding a meeting recently with representatives from other countries to learn about the benefits of this new technology in this area. 

Immersing myself in a culture with a rich and complex history underscores the significance of comprehending the past and its impact on the present world. A crucial aspect of Chile’s current political landscape is the enduring legacy of the Pinochet military dictatorship, which spanned from 1973 to 1990 and created impacts that to ripple through society today. This week, our supervisors took the office on a field trip to the Memory and Human Rights Museum that memorializes the atrocities and lives lost throughout that time. It was profoundly moving to witness primary source materials depicting instances of how the dictatorship manipulated the media and how the final citizen vote that removed Pinochet from office transpired. Additionally, it was eye-opening to gain insight into the negative impact of the United States government on the downfall of President Allende, a democratically elected socialist leader, and its support for the coup that ushered Pinochet into power. 

Working with International IDEA in Chile has been an incredible experience. I believe that gaining a deep understanding of another country’s politics will further enhance my understanding of my own. The striking similarities between Chile and Texas are most clearly symbolized by their nearly identical flags. Each day, I delve deeper into this experience and continue feeling increasingly at home in this new place. 

A research exchange program at the University of Texas at Austin supporting student work abroad in democratic institutional development

Health Equity

Penn LDI at AcademyHealth 2024 – The Photo Story

A widespread presence at the country’s largest gathering of health services researchers.

• Hoag Levins
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Kicking off 2024’s Annual Research Meeting (ARM), AcademyHealth’s new President and CEO Aaron Carroll, MD, MS , nodded to his predecessor and mentor Lisa Simpson as he spoke of the 48-year-old organization’s ongoing challenges. He pointed to a significant distrust in science; attacks on diversity, equity, and inclusion; and the rollbacks of the right to choose for women and health-related rights for other groups. “These challenges necessitate a strong united response, which is why we need community and collaboration more than ever,” he said. “We need to maintain a seat at the table of expertise to combat the misinformation that’s being spread all the time. AcademyHealth must continue acting as a trusted broker of information and advocating always for the production and use of evidence to improve health and health care.”

This year’s four-day meeting brought more than 2,900 health services researchers to the Baltimore Convention Center for more than 500 sessions and 1,680 posters covering a broad array of the latest health and health care trends and research projects. As shown below and on the companion ARM 2024 Poster Photo Page , the University of Pennsylvania’s Leonard David Institute of Health Economics ‘ (LDI) Senior and Associate Fellows played a significant role in all of that ( Click images for larger ).

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