first in dissertation

How to Improve Your Dissertation From a 2:1 (B) to a 1st (A) Grade

Achieving a First Class mark on a dissertation is slightly more difficult than it is for shorter assignments. This is simply due to the complexity of the dissertation compared to most types of coursework. However, the greater length of time that students have to complete a dissertation means that a First Class is definitely achievable. With some attention to the following details, you can increase your chances of moving from a 2:1 to a First.

First Class Dissertation

Be innovative.

You can set yourself up for earning a first by developing an original and innovative research plan from the start. The best dissertations demonstrate creative, independent thinking. Remember that the dissertation is often viewed as a starting point to a more advanced research career, so proving your ability for original thinking is a great way to show your potential to examiners.

Be Critical

The difference between a 2:1 dissertation and a first class dissertation is often the degree of critical thinking that it demonstrates. You should show an ability to think beyond common knowledge and deduce conclusions through insightful and analytical applications of theory. Although this may seem challenging, it is a skill that you will naturally develop from a wide reading of journal articles in your field. You can also enhance your ability for critical writing by discussing your ideas in seminars and conferences.

Create a Complex Argument – One of the best ways to convey your critical thinking abilities is by creating a complex but coherent argument. This involves combining multiple strands of established ideas to develop a highly specific analytical framework. You should be able to clearly define your overarching philosophy and methodology, and consider how this relates to various theoretical trends in your field. You should avoid convoluted arguments that include too many different ideas; instead, choose two or three complementary approaches and combine them to create a unique viewpoint on your subject.

Use Obscure Source Material

A good way to impress examiners and move from a 2:1 to a first class dissertation is to locate and make use of relatively unknown source material. This can take the form of primary sources obtained from historical archives and research laboratories or lesser-used secondary sources that you might secure through interlibrary loans. Using these materials will demonstrate your dedication to your research and your ability to judge the value of comparatively obscure sources.

Include Tables, Figures and Appendices

A First Class dissertation will include relevant tables, figures and data sets. These can provide essential information to support your overall argument. It is usually best to include these in an appendix at the end of your dissertation so that you can refer to the data multiple times throughout the work.

Write several drafts of your first class dissertation

Finally, be sure to write several drafts of your dissertation so that you can refine it to the level necessary to achieve a First. Often students will receive a 2:1 simply because they overlooked small typographical errors or clumsily written expression. By rewriting the dissertation several times you will be able to eliminate unnecessary phrases and increase its overall clarity. It will also give you more chances to receive feedback from tutors, which is essential if you want to move from a 2:1 to a first class dissertation!

Further Reading:

• Thinking Critically
• Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process.

First class dissertation is not easy to complete – it required skill, time and determination. If you need a first class dissertation, but struggle to complete it – our dissertation editing and improvement service can be a solution for you.

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How To Write A Dissertation Introduction

A Simple Explainer With Examples + Free Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By Dr Eunice Rautenbach (D. Tech) | March 2020

If you’re reading this, you’re probably at the daunting early phases of writing up the introduction chapter of your dissertation or thesis. It can be intimidating, I know. 

In this post, we’ll look at the 7 essential ingredients of a strong dissertation or thesis introduction chapter, as well as the essential things you need to keep in mind as you craft each section. We’ll also share some useful tips to help you optimize your approach.

Overview: Writing An Introduction Chapter

• The purpose and function of the intro chapter
• Craft an enticing and engaging opening section
• Provide a background and context to the study
• Clearly define the research problem
• State your research aims, objectives and questions
• Explain the significance of your study
• Identify the limitations of your research
• Outline the structure of your dissertation or thesis

A quick sidenote:

You’ll notice that I’ve used the words dissertation and thesis interchangeably. While these terms reflect different levels of research – for example, Masters vs PhD-level research – the introduction chapter generally contains the same 7 essential ingredients regardless of level. So, in this post, dissertation introduction equals thesis introduction.

Start with why.

To craft a high-quality dissertation or thesis introduction chapter, you need to understand exactly what this chapter needs to achieve. In other words, what’s its purpose ? As the name suggests, the introduction chapter needs to introduce the reader to your research so that they understand what you’re trying to figure out, or what problem you’re trying to solve. More specifically, you need to answer four important questions in your introduction chapter.

These questions are:

• What will you be researching? (in other words, your research topic)
• Why is that worthwhile? (in other words, your justification)
• What will the scope of your research be? (in other words, what will you cover and what won’t you cover)
• What will the limitations of your research be? (in other words, what will the potential shortcomings of your research be?)

Simply put, your dissertation’s introduction chapter needs to provide an overview of your planned research , as well as a clear rationale for it. In other words, this chapter has to explain the “what” and the “why” of your research – what’s it all about and why’s that important.

Simple enough, right?

Well, the trick is finding the appropriate depth of information. As the researcher, you’ll be extremely close to your topic and this makes it easy to get caught up in the minor details. While these intricate details might be interesting, you need to write your introduction chapter on more of a “need-to-know” type basis, or it will end up way too lengthy and dense. You need to balance painting a clear picture with keeping things concise. Don’t worry though – you’ll be able to explore all the intricate details in later chapters.

Now that you understand what you need to achieve from your introduction chapter, we can get into the details. While the exact requirements for this chapter can vary from university to university, there are seven core components that most universities will require. We call these the seven essential ingredients . 

The 7 Essential Ingredients

• The opening section – where you’ll introduce the reader to your research in high-level terms
• The background to the study – where you’ll explain the context of your project
• The research problem – where you’ll explain the “gap” that exists in the current research
• The research aims , objectives and questions – where you’ll clearly state what your research will aim to achieve
• The significance (or justification) – where you’ll explain why your research is worth doing and the value it will provide to the world
• The limitations – where you’ll acknowledge the potential limitations of your project and approach
• The structure – where you’ll briefly outline the structure of your dissertation or thesis to help orient the reader

By incorporating these seven essential ingredients into your introduction chapter, you’ll comprehensively cover both the “ what ” and the “ why ” I mentioned earlier – in other words, you’ll achieve the purpose of the chapter.

Side note – you can also use these 7 ingredients in this order as the structure for your chapter to ensure a smooth, logical flow. This isn’t essential, but, generally speaking, it helps create an engaging narrative that’s easy for your reader to understand. If you’d like, you can also download our free introduction chapter template here.

Alright – let’s look at each of the ingredients now.

#1 – The Opening Section

The very first essential ingredient for your dissertation introduction is, well, an introduction or opening section. Just like every other chapter, your introduction chapter needs to start by providing a brief overview of what you’ll be covering in the chapter.

This section needs to engage the reader with clear, concise language that can be easily understood and digested. If the reader (your marker!) has to struggle through it, they’ll lose interest, which will make it harder for you to earn marks. Just because you’re writing an academic paper doesn’t mean you can ignore the basic principles of engaging writing used by marketers, bloggers, and journalists. At the end of the day, you’re all trying to sell an idea – yours is just a research idea.

So, what goes into this opening section?

Well, while there’s no set formula, it’s a good idea to include the following four foundational sentences in your opening section:

1 – A sentence or two introducing the overall field of your research.

For example:

“Organisational skills development involves identifying current or potential skills gaps within a business and developing programs to resolve these gaps. Management research, including X, Y and Z, has clearly established that organisational skills development is an essential contributor to business growth.”

2 – A sentence introducing your specific research problem.

“However, there are conflicting views and an overall lack of research regarding how best to manage skills development initiatives in highly dynamic environments where subject knowledge is rapidly and continuously evolving – for example, in the website development industry.”

3 – A sentence stating your research aims and objectives.

“This research aims to identify and evaluate skills development approaches and strategies for highly dynamic industries in which subject knowledge is continuously evolving.”.

4 – A sentence outlining the layout of the chapter.

“This chapter will provide an introduction to the study by first discussing the background and context, followed by the research problem, the research aims, objectives and questions, the significance and finally, the limitations.”

As I mentioned, this opening section of your introduction chapter shouldn’t be lengthy . Typically, these four sentences should fit neatly into one or two paragraphs, max. What you’re aiming for here is a clear, concise introduction to your research – not a detailed account.

PS – If some of this terminology sounds unfamiliar, don’t stress – I’ll explain each of the concepts later in this post.

#2 – Background to the study

Now that you’ve provided a high-level overview of your dissertation or thesis, it’s time to go a little deeper and lay a foundation for your research topic. This foundation is what the second ingredient is all about – the background to your study.

So, what is the background section all about?

Well, this section of your introduction chapter should provide a broad overview of the topic area that you’ll be researching, as well as the current contextual factors . This could include, for example, a brief history of the topic, recent developments in the area, key pieces of research in the area and so on. In other words, in this section, you need to provide the relevant background information to give the reader a decent foundational understanding of your research area.

Let’s look at an example to make this a little more concrete.

If we stick with the skills development topic I mentioned earlier, the background to the study section would start by providing an overview of the skills development area and outline the key existing research. Then, it would go on to discuss how the modern-day context has created a new challenge for traditional skills development strategies and approaches. Specifically, that in many industries, technical knowledge is constantly and rapidly evolving, and traditional education providers struggle to keep up with the pace of new technologies.

Importantly, you need to write this section with the assumption that the reader is not an expert in your topic area. So, if there are industry-specific jargon and complex terminology, you should briefly explain that here , so that the reader can understand the rest of your document.

Don’t make assumptions about the reader’s knowledge – in most cases, your markers will not be able to ask you questions if they don’t understand something. So, always err on the safe side and explain anything that’s not common knowledge.

#3 – The research problem

Now that you’ve given your reader an overview of your research area, it’s time to get specific about the research problem that you’ll address in your dissertation or thesis. While the background section would have alluded to a potential research problem (or even multiple research problems), the purpose of this section is to narrow the focus and highlight the specific research problem you’ll focus on.

But, what exactly is a research problem, you ask?

Well, a research problem can be any issue or question for which there isn’t already a well-established and agreed-upon answer in the existing research. In other words, a research problem exists when there’s a need to answer a question (or set of questions), but there’s a gap in the existing literature , or the existing research is conflicting and/or inconsistent.

So, to present your research problem, you need to make it clear what exactly is missing in the current literature and why this is a problem . It’s usually a good idea to structure this discussion into three sections – specifically:

• What’s already well-established in the literature (in other words, the current state of research)
• What’s missing in the literature (in other words, the literature gap)
• Why this is a problem (in other words, why it’s important to fill this gap)

Let’s look at an example of this structure using the skills development topic.

Organisational skills development is critically important for employee satisfaction and company performance (reference). Numerous studies have investigated strategies and approaches to manage skills development programs within organisations (reference).

(this paragraph explains what’s already well-established in the literature)

However, these studies have traditionally focused on relatively slow-paced industries where key skills and knowledge do not change particularly often. This body of theory presents a problem for industries that face a rapidly changing skills landscape – for example, the website development industry – where new platforms, languages and best practices emerge on an extremely frequent basis.

(this paragraph explains what’s missing from the literature)

As a result, the existing research is inadequate for industries in which essential knowledge and skills are constantly and rapidly evolving, as it assumes a slow pace of knowledge development. Industries in such environments, therefore, find themselves ill-equipped in terms of skills development strategies and approaches.

(this paragraph explains why the research gap is problematic)

As you can see in this example, in a few lines, we’ve explained (1) the current state of research, (2) the literature gap and (3) why that gap is problematic. By doing this, the research problem is made crystal clear, which lays the foundation for the next ingredient.

#4 – The research aims, objectives and questions

Now that you’ve clearly identified your research problem, it’s time to identify your research aims and objectives , as well as your research questions . In other words, it’s time to explain what you’re going to do about the research problem.

So, what do you need to do here?

Well, the starting point is to clearly state your research aim (or aims) . The research aim is the main goal or the overarching purpose of your dissertation or thesis. In other words, it’s a high-level statement of what you’re aiming to achieve.

Let’s look at an example, sticking with the skills development topic:

“Given the lack of research regarding organisational skills development in fast-moving industries, this study will aim to identify and evaluate the skills development approaches utilised by web development companies in the UK”.

As you can see in this example, the research aim is clearly outlined, as well as the specific context in which the research will be undertaken (in other words, web development companies in the UK).

Next up is the research objective (or objectives) . While the research aims cover the high-level “what”, the research objectives are a bit more practically oriented, looking at specific things you’ll be doing to achieve those research aims.

Let’s take a look at an example of some research objectives (ROs) to fit the research aim.

• RO1 – To identify common skills development strategies and approaches utilised by web development companies in the UK.
• RO2 – To evaluate the effectiveness of these strategies and approaches.
• RO3 – To compare and contrast these strategies and approaches in terms of their strengths and weaknesses.

As you can see from this example, these objectives describe the actions you’ll take and the specific things you’ll investigate in order to achieve your research aims. They break down the research aims into more specific, actionable objectives.

The final step is to state your research questions . Your research questions bring the aims and objectives another level “down to earth”. These are the specific questions that your dissertation or theses will seek to answer. They’re not fluffy, ambiguous or conceptual – they’re very specific and you’ll need to directly answer them in your conclusions chapter .

The research questions typically relate directly to the research objectives and sometimes can look a bit obvious, but they are still extremely important. Let’s take a look at an example of the research questions (RQs) that would flow from the research objectives I mentioned earlier.

• RQ1 – What skills development strategies and approaches are currently being used by web development companies in the UK?
• RQ2 – How effective are each of these strategies and approaches?
• RQ3 – What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of these strategies and approaches?

As you can see, the research questions mimic the research objectives , but they are presented in question format. These questions will act as the driving force throughout your dissertation or thesis – from the literature review to the methodology and onward – so they’re really important.

A final note about this section – it’s really important to be clear about the scope of your study (more technically, the delimitations ). In other words, what you WILL cover and what you WON’T cover. If your research aims, objectives and questions are too broad, you’ll risk losing focus or investigating a problem that is too big to solve within a single dissertation.

Simply put, you need to establish clear boundaries in your research. You can do this, for example, by limiting it to a specific industry, country or time period. That way, you’ll ringfence your research, which will allow you to investigate your topic deeply and thoroughly – which is what earns marks!

Need a helping hand?

#5 – Significance

Now that you’ve made it clear what you’ll be researching, it’s time to make a strong argument regarding your study’s importance and significance . In other words, now that you’ve covered the what, it’s time to cover the why – enter essential ingredient number 5 – significance.

Of course, by this stage, you’ve already briefly alluded to the importance of your study in your background and research problem sections, but you haven’t explicitly stated how your research findings will benefit the world . So, now’s your chance to clearly state how your study will benefit either industry , academia , or – ideally – both . In other words, you need to explain how your research will make a difference and what implications it will have .

Let’s take a look at an example.

“This study will contribute to the body of knowledge on skills development by incorporating skills development strategies and approaches for industries in which knowledge and skills are rapidly and constantly changing. This will help address the current shortage of research in this area and provide real-world value to organisations operating in such dynamic environments.”

As you can see in this example, the paragraph clearly explains how the research will help fill a gap in the literature and also provide practical real-world value to organisations.

This section doesn’t need to be particularly lengthy, but it does need to be convincing . You need to “sell” the value of your research here so that the reader understands why it’s worth committing an entire dissertation or thesis to it. This section needs to be the salesman of your research. So, spend some time thinking about the ways in which your research will make a unique contribution to the world and how the knowledge you create could benefit both academia and industry – and then “sell it” in this section.

#6 – The limitations

Now that you’ve “sold” your research to the reader and hopefully got them excited about what’s coming up in the rest of your dissertation, it’s time to briefly discuss the potential limitations of your research.

But you’re probably thinking, hold up – what limitations? My research is well thought out and carefully designed – why would there be limitations?

Well, no piece of research is perfect . This is especially true for a dissertation or thesis – which typically has a very low or zero budget, tight time constraints and limited researcher experience. Generally, your dissertation will be the first or second formal research project you’ve ever undertaken, so it’s unlikely to win any research awards…

Simply put, your research will invariably have limitations. Don’t stress yourself out though – this is completely acceptable (and expected). Even “professional” research has limitations – as I said, no piece of research is perfect. The key is to recognise the limitations upfront and be completely transparent about them, so that future researchers are aware of them and can improve the study’s design to minimise the limitations and strengthen the findings.

Generally, you’ll want to consider at least the following four common limitations. These are:

• Your scope – for example, perhaps your focus is very narrow and doesn’t consider how certain variables interact with each other.
• Your research methodology – for example, a qualitative methodology could be criticised for being overly subjective, or a quantitative methodology could be criticised for oversimplifying the situation (learn more about methodologies here ).
• Your resources – for example, a lack of time, money, equipment and your own research experience.
• The generalisability of your findings – for example, the findings from the study of a specific industry or country can’t necessarily be generalised to other industries or countries.

Don’t be shy here. There’s no use trying to hide the limitations or weaknesses of your research. In fact, the more critical you can be of your study, the better. The markers want to see that you are aware of the limitations as this demonstrates your understanding of research design – so be brutal.

#7 – The structural outline

Now that you’ve clearly communicated what your research is going to be about, why it’s important and what the limitations of your research will be, the final ingredient is the structural outline.The purpose of this section is simply to provide your reader with a roadmap of what to expect in terms of the structure of your dissertation or thesis.

In this section, you’ll need to provide a brief summary of each chapter’s purpose and contents (including the introduction chapter). A sentence or two explaining what you’ll do in each chapter is generally enough to orient the reader. You don’t want to get too detailed here – it’s purely an outline, not a summary of your research.

Let’s look at an example:

In Chapter One, the context of the study has been introduced. The research objectives and questions have been identified, and the value of such research argued. The limitations of the study have also been discussed.

In Chapter Two, the existing literature will be reviewed and a foundation of theory will be laid out to identify key skills development approaches and strategies within the context of fast-moving industries, especially technology-intensive industries.

In Chapter Three, the methodological choices will be explored. Specifically, the adoption of a qualitative, inductive research approach will be justified, and the broader research design will be discussed, including the limitations thereof.

So, as you can see from the example, this section is simply an outline of the chapter structure, allocating a short paragraph to each chapter. Done correctly, the outline will help your reader understand what to expect and reassure them that you’ll address the multiple facets of the study.

By the way – if you’re unsure of how to structure your dissertation or thesis, be sure to check out our video post which explains dissertation structure .

Keep calm and carry on.

Hopefully you feel a bit more prepared for this challenge of crafting your dissertation or thesis introduction chapter now. Take a deep breath and remember that Rome wasn’t built in a day – conquer one ingredient at a time and you’ll be firmly on the path to success.

Let’s quickly recap – the 7 ingredients are:

• The opening section – where you give a brief, high-level overview of what your research will be about.
• The study background – where you introduce the reader to key theory, concepts and terminology, as well as the context of your study.
• The research problem – where you explain what the problem with the current research is. In other words, the research gap.
• The research aims , objectives and questions – where you clearly state what your dissertation will investigate.
• The significance – where you explain what value your research will provide to the world.
• The limitations – where you explain what the potential shortcomings and limitations of your research may be.
• The structural outline – where you provide a high-level overview of the structure of your document

If you bake these ingredients into your dissertation introduction chapter, you’ll be well on your way to building an engaging introduction chapter that lays a rock-solid foundation for the rest of your document.

Remember, while we’ve covered the essential ingredients here, there may be some additional components that your university requires, so be sure to double-check your project brief!

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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43 Comments

Thanks very much for such an insight. I feel confident enough in undertaking my thesis on the survey;The future of facial recognition and learning non verbal interaction

Glad to hear that. Good luck with your thesis!

Thanks very much for such an insight. I feel confident now undertaking my thesis; The future of facial recognition and learning non verbal interaction.

Thanks so much for this article. I found myself struggling and wasting a lot of time in my thesis writing but after reading this article and watching some of your youtube videos, I now have a clear understanding of what is required for a thesis.

Thank you Derek, i find your each post so useful. Keep it up.

Thank you so much Derek ,for shedding the light and making it easier for me to handle the daunting task of academic writing .

Thanks do much Dereck for the comprehensive guide. It will assist me queit a lot in my thesis.

thanks a lot for helping

i LOVE the gifs, such a fun way to engage readers. thanks for the advice, much appreciated

Thanks a lot Derek! It will be really useful to the beginner in research!

You’re welcome

This is a well written, easily comprehensible, simple introduction to the basics of a Research Dissertation../the need to keep the reader in mind while writing the dissertation is an important point that is covered../ I appreciate the efforts of the author../

The instruction given are perfect and clear. I was supposed to take the course , unfortunately in Nepal the service is not avaialble.However, I am much more hopeful that you will provide require documents whatever you have produced so far.

Thank you very much

Thanks so much ❤️😘 I feel am ready to start writing my research methodology

This is genuinely the most effective advice I have ever been given regarding academia. Thank you so much!

This is one of the best write up I have seen in my road to PhD thesis. regards, this write up update my knowledge of research

I was looking for some good blogs related to Education hopefully your article will help. Thanks for sharing.

This is an awesome masterpiece. It is one of the most comprehensive guides to writing a Dissertation/Thesis I have seen and read.

You just saved me from going astray in writing a Dissertation for my undergraduate studies. I could not be more grateful for such a relevant guide like this. Thank you so much.

Thank you so much Derek, this has been extremely helpful!!

I do have one question though, in the limitations part do you refer to the scope as the focus of the research on a specific industry/country/chronological period? I assume that in order to talk about whether or not the research could be generalized, the above would need to be already presented and described in the introduction.

Thank you again!

Phew! You have genuinely rescued me. I was stuck how to go about my thesis. Now l have started. Thank you.

This is the very best guide in anything that has to do with thesis or dissertation writing. The numerous blends of examples and detailed insights make it worth a read and in fact, a treasure that is worthy to be bookmarked.

Thanks a lot for this masterpiece!

Powerful insight. I can now take a step

Thank you very much for these valuable introductions to thesis chapters. I saw all your videos about writing the introduction, discussion, and conclusion chapter. Then, I am wondering if we need to explain our research limitations in all three chapters, introduction, discussion, and conclusion? Isn’t it a bit redundant? If not, could you please explain how can we write in different ways? Thank you.

Excellent!!! Thank you…

Thanks for this informative content. I have a question. The research gap is mentioned in both the introduction and literature section. I would like to know how can I demonstrate the research gap in both sections without repeating the contents?

I’m incredibly grateful for this invaluable content. I’ve been dreading compiling my postgrad thesis but breaking each chapter down into sections has made it so much easier for me to engage with the material without feeling overwhelmed. After relying on your guidance, I’m really happy with how I’ve laid out my introduction.

Thank you for the informative content you provided

Hi Derrick and Team, thank you so much for the comprehensive guide on how to write a dissertation or a thesis introduction section. For some of us first-timers, it is a daunting task. However, the instruction with relevant examples makes it clear and easy to follow through. Much appreciated.

It was so helpful. God Bless you. Thanks very much

I thank you Grad coach for your priceless help. I have two questions I have learned from your video the limitations of the research presented in chapter one. but in another video also presented in chapter five. which chapter limitation should be included? If possible, I need your answer since I am doing my thesis. how can I explain If I am asked what is my motivation for this research?

You explain what moment in life caused you to have a peaked interest in the thesis topic. Personal experiences? Or something that had an impact on your life, or others. Something would have caused your drive of topic. Dig deep inside, the answer is within you!

Thank you guys for the great work you are doing. Honestly, you have made the research to be interesting and simplified. Even a novice will easily grasp the ideas you put forward, Thank you once again.

Excellent piece!

I feel like just settling for a good topic is usually the hardest part.

Thank you so much. My confidence has been completely destroyed during my first year of PhD and you have helped me pull myself together again

Happy to help 🙂

I am so glad I ran into your resources and did not waste time doing the wrong this. Research is now making so much sense now.

Gratitude to Derrick and the team I was looking for a solid article that would aid me in drafting the thesis’ introduction. I felt quite happy when I came across the piece you wrote because it was so well-written and insightful. I wish you success in the future.

thank you so much. God Bless you

Thank you so much Grad Coach for these helpful insights. Now I can get started, with a great deal of confidence.

It’s ‘alluded to’ not ‘eluded to’.

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The Dissertation Process Explained in 6 Simple Steps

Completing your doctoral program is no easy feat, yet the payoff makes it all worthwhile. You’ll challenge yourself with academic rigor and defend your thesis as you showcase your knowledge to a panel of experts.

One of the hardest parts of the dissertation process is simply getting started. Here are six steps to guide you to successfully earning your doctoral degree by tackling your dissertation, from start to finish.

Step 1: Brainstorm Topics

Finding a research topic that’s right for you and your doctoral studies requires some serious thought. A doctoral program can take years to complete, so it’s important you choose a topic that you’re passionate about. Whether that’s in the field of education administration or entrepreneurship, find an area of study that suits your academic interests and career goals. 

As a doctoral candidate, you’ll take on the role of an independent researcher, which means you’ll be facilitating your own studies and academic milestones. Choose a topic that gets your wheels turning and stirs up an urgent sense of curiosity. However, take note that not every idea will suit a doctoral dissertation and the manuscript formatting. Many students make the mistake of choosing a topic that is too broad. Doctoral dissertations must be researchable and demonstrative based on qualitative or quantitative data. 

Do some preliminary research to determine if someone has already conducted similar research. Being flexible with your brainstorming will allow you to refine your topic with ease. Take constructive criticism from peers and mentors seriously so that you set yourself up for success from day one. If you find yourself feeling a bit lost, don’t be afraid to turn to experts in your field for their opinion. At this initial stage of the dissertation process, you should be the most open to exploring new ideas and refining your area of research.

Step 2: Find a Faculty Mentor and Committee Assignment

Once your topic is approved by the university, you’ll be tasked with selecting a faculty mentor. Finding a faculty chairperson is one of the most important steps you will take in your dissertation process , apart from crafting and delivering your manuscript. After all, your mentor will guide your academic work over the course of your doctoral studies for the next several years. You two will develop a working relationship, so it’s crucial that you choose a mentor you can collaborate and communicate with effectively.

At most universities, your faculty chair will be dedicated to the dissertation process full time. That means they will have the skills, expertise and time to support all of your needs. However, for the other members of your dissertation committee, you’ll want to consider logistics as well. You may have a dream faculty mentor you’d appreciate working with, but they must have the time and attention to dedicate to make the investment worthwhile for you both. Be upfront about your intended timeline, weekly and monthly time commitment, and expectations around communication. When you approach a faculty member about serving as part of your dissertation committee, leave the door open for them to say “no,” so you’re sure to find the right fit and someone who can commit in the long run. 

Some universities make the selection process easy by assigning a dissertation chair and committee to you. For example, doctoral students at SNU are assigned a committee comprised of four people: a dissertation chair within the program’s department, a second departmental faculty member, a member from outside the department who has scholarly expertise in the student’s research topic, and the Dissertation Director who coordinates all communication among the committee members.

Step 3: Develop and Submit a Proposal

Think of the proposal as an opportunity for you to both suss out your ideas and create a convincing argument to present to the faculty committee. Your proposal is the first look at your thesis statement, where you:

• Introduce the topic
• Pose a set of related topics
• Outline the qualitative and quantitative data you hope to extract through careful research  

Again, be open to critical feedback. During this stage, you have the opportunity to reflect and refine the direction of your research. Faculty members will likely reciprocate your proposal with pointed questions that identify gaps in your proposal development or information-seeking process. 

You’ll go through a set of one or more revisions based on faculty feedback. You’ll then submit your proposal application for final approval. Once you have the entire committee’s approval, you’ll begin to collect data.

Step 4: Conduct Research and Data Analysis

In your proposal, you’ll outline your plan to conduct careful research, collect data and analyze that data. Throughout the research process, refer back to your outline to chart your own progress and to build a collection of measurable results to present to your faculty mentor. 

The next step is to add the data you collect to your proposal in two sections. The first section will summarize the data, and the second will offer an interpretation of that data. This step also lends itself to a series of revisions between you and the dissertation committee. Be prepared to implement those changes as you begin to draft your manuscript .

Step 5: Draft Your Manuscript

First, consult with your university’s policies and procedures regarding the doctoral manuscript academic requirements and scholarly style. Check with your department to inquire about additional departmental procedures. 

Consider Your Format 

Develop a consistent format in the early stages, so that submitting your thesis to the Advisory Committee and Examining Committee will run smoothly and you can receive swift feedback. You want to create both a professional and intuitive system for the academic committee and your general audience to be able to easily peruse your thesis. 

Pay close attention to proper sourcing of previously published content and provide a numbering system (page numbers and charts) that reflects the formatting of your thesis, not the numbering system of a previous publication. Devise chapter layout with the same level of scrutiny. Number chapters sequentially, and create a uniform system to label all charts, tables and equations. And last but not least, be sure to follow standard grammatical conventions, including spelling and punctuation. 

Cite Your Sources

As you gather research and develop your manuscript, you must cite your sources accurately and consistently. Check with your department ahead of time in case you should be formatting your resources according to specific departmental standards. In the absence of departmental standards, create a format of your own that you can adhere to with consistency. Most doctoral candidates will choose to include sources at the end of each chapter or in one single list at the end of their dissertation. 

Craft Your Content

You’ll spend the bulk of your time crafting the content of the manuscript itself . You’ll  begin by summarizing relevant sourcing and reviewing related literature. The purpose of this first section is to establish your expertise in the field, establish clear objectives for your research, identify the broader context within which the research resides, and provide more acute context for the data itself. You’ll then discuss the methods of analyzing the research before transitioning into data analysis in a chapter-by-chapter breakdown. Finally, in your conclusion, you’ll link your direct research to the larger picture and the implications of its impact in your field.

Step 6: Defend Your Thesis

The pinnacle of your research will be defending your thesis in front of a panel of experts — the dissertation committee. Sometimes this takes place in person, or, as has proved increasingly common during the past year, by video/voice conferencing. 

This is your opportunity to demonstrate all that you have learned over multiple years of careful research and analysis. The committee will pose questions to both clarify and challenge your level of knowledge in an impromptu fashion. In some cases, based on the committee’s perception, you may need to submit a secondary oral defense. Ultimately, the committee will determine a successful delivery of your dissertation and the chance to proudly assert your doctoral status after completing all degree requirements. 

No matter which path you choose to pursue en route to your doctoral, online and in-person education options can make your dream of completing your degree one step closer to reality. Take a look at SNU’s online and on-campus course offerings today.

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• Dissertation

How to Write a Dissertation or Thesis Proposal

Published on September 21, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023.

When starting your thesis or dissertation process, one of the first requirements is a research proposal or a prospectus. It describes what or who you want to examine, delving into why, when, where, and how you will do so, stemming from your research question and a relevant topic .

The proposal or prospectus stage is crucial for the development of your research. It helps you choose a type of research to pursue, as well as whether to pursue qualitative or quantitative methods and what your research design will look like.

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What should your proposal contain, dissertation question examples, what should your proposal look like, dissertation prospectus examples, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about proposals.

Prior to jumping into the research for your thesis or dissertation, you first need to develop your research proposal and have it approved by your supervisor. It should outline all of the decisions you have taken about your project, from your dissertation topic to your hypotheses and research objectives .

Depending on your department’s requirements, there may be a defense component involved, where you present your research plan in prospectus format to your committee for their approval.

Your proposal should answer the following questions:

• Why is your research necessary?
• What is already known about your topic?
• Where and when will your research be conducted?
• Who should be studied?
• How can the research best be done?

Ultimately, your proposal should persuade your supervisor or committee that your proposed project is worth pursuing.

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Strong research kicks off with a solid research question , and dissertations are no exception to this.

Dissertation research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly
• What are the main factors enticing people under 30 in suburban areas to engage in the gig economy?
• Which techniques prove most effective for 1st-grade teachers at local elementary schools in engaging students with special needs?
• Which communication streams are the most effective for getting those aged 18-30 to the polls on Election Day?

An easy rule of thumb is that your proposal will usually resemble a (much) shorter version of your thesis or dissertation. While of course it won’t include the results section , discussion section , or conclusion , it serves as a “mini” version or roadmap for what you eventually seek to write.

Be sure to include:

• A succinct introduction to your topic and problem statement
• A brief literature review situating your topic within existing research
• A basic outline of the research methods you think will best answer your research question
• The perceived implications for future research
• A reference list in the citation style of your choice

The length of your proposal varies quite a bit depending on your discipline and type of work you’re conducting. While a thesis proposal is often only 3-7 pages long, a prospectus for your dissertation is usually much longer, with more detailed analysis. Dissertation proposals can be up to 25-30 pages in length.

Writing a proposal or prospectus can be a challenge, but we’ve compiled some examples for you to get your started.

• Example #1: “Geographic Representations of the Planet Mars, 1867-1907” by Maria Lane
• Example #2: “Individuals and the State in Late Bronze Age Greece: Messenian Perspectives on Mycenaean Society” by Dimitri Nakassis
• Example #3: “Manhood Up in the Air: A Study of Male Flight Attendants, Queerness, and Corporate Capitalism during the Cold War Era” by Phil Tiemeyer

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The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organize your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation , such as:

• Your anticipated title
• Your abstract
• Your chapters (sometimes subdivided into further topics like literature review , research methods , avenues for future research, etc.)

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A dissertation prospectus or proposal describes what or who you plan to research for your dissertation. It delves into why, when, where, and how you will do your research, as well as helps you choose a type of research to pursue. You should also determine whether you plan to pursue qualitative or quantitative methods and what your research design will look like.

It should outline all of the decisions you have taken about your project, from your dissertation topic to your hypotheses and research objectives , ready to be approved by your supervisor or committee.

Note that some departments require a defense component, where you present your prospectus to your committee orally.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

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/images/cornell/logo35pt_cornell_white.svg" alt="first in dissertation"> Cornell University --> Graduate School

Guide to writing your thesis/dissertation, definition of dissertation and thesis.

The dissertation or thesis is a scholarly treatise that substantiates a specific point of view as a result of original research that is conducted by students during their graduate study. At Cornell, the thesis is a requirement for the receipt of the M.A. and M.S. degrees and some professional master’s degrees. The dissertation is a requirement of the Ph.D. degree.

Formatting Requirement and Standards

The Graduate School sets the minimum format for your thesis or dissertation, while you, your special committee, and your advisor/chair decide upon the content and length. Grammar, punctuation, spelling, and other mechanical issues are your sole responsibility. Generally, the thesis and dissertation should conform to the standards of leading academic journals in your field. The Graduate School does not monitor the thesis or dissertation for mechanics, content, or style.

“Papers Option” Dissertation or Thesis

A “papers option” is available only to students in certain fields, which are listed on the Fields Permitting the Use of Papers Option page , or by approved petition. If you choose the papers option, your dissertation or thesis is organized as a series of relatively independent chapters or papers that you have submitted or will be submitting to journals in the field. You must be the only author or the first author of the papers to be used in the dissertation. The papers-option dissertation or thesis must meet all format and submission requirements, and a singular referencing convention must be used throughout.

ProQuest Electronic Submissions

The dissertation and thesis become permanent records of your original research, and in the case of doctoral research, the Graduate School requires publication of the dissertation and abstract in its original form. All Cornell master’s theses and doctoral dissertations require an electronic submission through ProQuest, which fills orders for paper or digital copies of the thesis and dissertation and makes a digital version available online via their subscription database, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses . For master’s theses, only the abstract is available. ProQuest provides worldwide distribution of your work from the master copy. You retain control over your dissertation and are free to grant publishing rights as you see fit. The formatting requirements contained in this guide meet all ProQuest specifications.

Copies of Dissertation and Thesis

Copies of Ph.D. dissertations and master’s theses are also uploaded in PDF format to the Cornell Library Repository, eCommons . A print copy of each master’s thesis and doctoral dissertation is submitted to Cornell University Library by ProQuest.

This page has been archived and is no longer being updated regularly.

Degree In Sight

Starting the dissertation

Experts offer tips on picking a topic, conducting a lit review and narrowing your focus.

By MELISSA DITTMANN

gradPSYCH Staff

You've watched other classmates sweating over their dissertation topics, poring over the literature, agonizing over their research design, writing and editing. Now, it's your turn.

But, when and how do you begin?

Ideally, dissertation advisers say, students identify a research interest in the first or second year of their program and then use that general area as a theme throughout their coursework. But students don't need to view that general area as a trajectory of their career. Instead, experts encourage students to view the dissertation as a teaching exercise, in which they learn how to conduct, design and analyze independent research.

So first off, you need a topic.

"The topic is the foundation for everything-with a good topic and research question, you'll be set to go," says Melinda Stoops, PhD, a director of the counseling center at Framingham State College in Framingham, Mass., who has spoken at APA conferences on writing the dissertation.

Experts offer the following advice on tackling these beginning stages of your dissertation-from getting organized to narrowing your topic to identifying your problem and research questions.

Then, take it one chapter at a time, dissertation advisers say.

  PICKING A TOPIC

When deciding your topic, keep in mind that you will undoubtedly spend the next few years immersed in it, says psychologist John Cone, PhD, a professor emeritus at Alliant International University (AIU) and co-author with Sharon Foster, PhD, of "Dissertations and Theses from Start to Finish" (APA, 1993). Cone advises the following steps to pick a topic:

Ask a favorite professor, preferably one active in research, about possible topics.

Read departmental information on the research interests of the faculty to find a topic a faculty member is interested in as well. Consider asking the faculty member to be a part of your dissertation committee, which will help guide you in your research.

Read an empirical paper that interests you and see what future research is suggested in the discussion section.

Think about term papers you enjoyed writing and choose a topic that reflects those interests.

Sift through literature reviews in your areas of interest-such as in the Annual Review of Psychology, Psychological Bulletin and Clinical Psychology Review.

Avoid topics in which you are overly emotionally involved-such as research on depression if you or a family member is depressed. Such emotional elements can interfere with your research, Cone says.

To narrow your focus, identify what within your chosen topic area interests you, says Foster, a psychology professor at AIU. Bounce ideas off a mentor and consult the literature to determine what has been done before, she advises. Also, consider choosing a topic that you've already been exposed to, such as through your master's thesis or a research project.

That's exactly what sixth-year doctoral student Jody Ernst did. Ernst-who is in the University of Texas at Austin's individual differences and evolutionary psychology program-has spent her entire graduate career researching behavioral genetics.

"Selecting the topic sort of fell into place naturally as a product of the research I have been doing for the past five years," Ernst says. In particular, her dissertation investigates the genetic factors that influence problem behavior development over the life span.

"It is helpful to choose a topic that builds upon past work you have done," Ernst says. "I think this makes the process of identifying the big questions much easier because you are already familiar with the relevant literature."

But, make sure you have passion for the topic. Nate Tomcik-a fifth-year doctoral student in the clinical psychology program at the University of Tennessee-has an interest in his research on therapists' views of couples therapy because it allowed him to integrate research with his clinical work with couples.

"My advice would be to not choose a topic that is an unappealing offshoot of your adviser's work or a project that you have lukewarm feelings about in general," Tomcik suggests. "It's important to remember that the dissertation is a marathon, not a sprint, and lukewarm feelings can turn cold quickly.

"If I didn't love my dissertation idea as much as I do, I know it would have been much harder to stay on track and focused," he adds.

  CONDUCTING THE LIT REVIEW

Once you've identified a topic, the next step is to write a review of the literature in the area. The lit review section will include a brief introduction to your topic, introduce key concepts and review the existing literature.

But be prepared: The lit review often is the most difficult part of the dissertation, Foster maintains.

"Sometimes you are going to feel lost and like you don't know where you're going," Foster says. "The reason for that is because you are trying to do several things concurrently-you're trying to learn about this whole field and get a conceptual framework of how to map out this area of research."

But, it's nothing your classes haven't prepared you to take on, Foster says.

Cone and Foster also suggest that students:

Determine how experts in the field have organized their thinking by reading chapters or integrative articles they've written.

Find meta-analyses, journal articles or books on the topic and scan their reference sections for other references.

Identify key journals that cover the topic and scan their table of contents from the past five years for material.

Search electronic bibliographies-such as PsycINFO (which contains nearly 2 million citations of journal articles, books and dissertations in psychology) or the Education Resources Information Center, or ERIC, which offers a database of journal and other education literature.

Identify major authors in the area and search for them by name in databases, such as PsycLIT, to determine if they've written on other related items.

Determine if related research might be published under different keywords.

For example, Foster says in her research on girls' aggression, "aggression" as a keyword didn't cover it. Without trying other keywords, she would have missed key information on "delinquency" and "conduct disorders," which use similar criteria to define the population.

Jennifer Reese-a fourth-year doctoral student in the PsyD program at the University of Denver-used what she calls the "scavenger hunt" approach for her lit review; she scanned reference sections of relevant books and journal articles and then found those referenced sources as well. She is validating the use of Jane Elliott's Blue Eyes Brown Eyes exercise, a behavior training method that uses discrimination against a person's eye color to teach Caucasians about prejudice and oppression. Reese even spoke with Elliott-a retired schoolteacher who created the experiment in the 1960s-to get background on what similar studies had been done.

So how do you know when you've gathered enough for your lit review? "I know when I go to the reference sections, and I'm not finding any new things-when I keep turning up the same things over and over again," Foster says.

  IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM AND QUESTIONS

Once you feel confident that you've covered the literature, identify the rationale for your study, why it's important and what hasn't been studied about it before, Foster says.

To do that, Cone suggests writing a paragraph or two summarizing the literature review. Then, determine what unresolved issues are identified in the most recently cited studies-and most relevant to your study. Select one of these issues and formulate one or two research questions and associated hypotheses.

When formulating the research question, consider whether you'll be able to recruit enough participants, Stoops says. Ask your dissertation committee-which usually comprises three or four faculty members you choose when you first begin your dissertation-for feedback on whether they believe you'll be able to recruit enough participants or obtain animals, if needed, dissertation advisers suggest.

After her extensive lit review, Ernst was able to pinpoint her research questions for her dissertation on problem behavior development, including: Are there predictable developmental trajectories for problem behaviors? What factors influence the development of problem behaviors for vulnerable individuals across the life span? She identified these questions by finding the gaps within the problem behavior development literature.

Both the statement of the problem and research questions will be lumped in the introduction of your dissertation, which provides an overview of your study. But, while the introduction is sometimes the first chapter in your dissertation, don't feel compelled to have it be the first thing you do, says Framingham State College's Stoops. She didn't write her introduction until after doing her lit review and methodology.

However, Ernst wrote her statement first and then continually added relevant citations as she came upon them.

"Writing the intro first helped me to organize my thoughts about gaps in current research and helped me to identify what new and relevant information I would be adding to this line of research," she says.

  STAYING ON TRACK

Whatever methods you choose, even these beginning stages to your dissertation may seem overwhelming. So treat your dissertation as a job, Cone advises. He suggests committing 10 to 20 hours per week for 12 to 18 months to avoid becoming a casualty to the All But Dissertation (ABD) label. Set specific work hours and choose a specific place to work, he advises.

And tap the guidance of others-such as professors, peers or other mentors-who can help you through the process, Foster adds. (For tips to finding a mentor, see Building mentorships for success .)

"People who are a little ahead of you in the process can be very helpful," Foster says. "They will tell you what they've gone through and normalize your experience and give you leads."

One way to get a peer network for your dissertation: Join the APAGS dissertation listserv . 

Another is taking a class on the dissertation process. That certainly helped Chris Bernuth, a sixth-year counseling psychology doctoral student at University of Missouri-Columbia, to stay on track. The professor's due dates and the class's extra support prevented procrastination, he says.

"Very smart people can become ABD because they procrastinate or think they can write the dissertation in a couple of all-night sessions, and you cannot do that with a dissertation," Foster says.

When Stoops was working on her dissertation, she combated tendencies to procrastinate by setting deadlines with her dissertation chair. One way to set those deadlines, Cone says, is to list each step in chronological order and then use it to create a milestone chart.

And most importantly, Cone says students can be confident about their ability to complete the dissertation.

"After all," he says, "you have made it this far."

The dissertation, start to finish

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation

What Is a Dissertation? | 5 Essential Questions to Get Started

Published on 26 March 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 5 May 2022.

A dissertation is a large research project undertaken at the end of a degree. It involves in-depth consideration of a problem or question chosen by the student. It is usually the largest (and final) piece of written work produced during a degree.

The length and structure of a dissertation vary widely depending on the level and field of study. However, there are some key questions that can help you understand the requirements and get started on your dissertation project.

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When and why do you have to write a dissertation, who will supervise your dissertation, what type of research will you do, how should your dissertation be structured, what formatting and referencing rules do you have to follow, frequently asked questions about dissertations.

A dissertation, sometimes called a thesis, comes at the end of an undergraduate or postgraduate degree. It is a larger project than the other essays you’ve written, requiring a higher word count and a greater depth of research.

You’ll generally work on your dissertation during the final year of your degree, over a longer period than you would take for a standard essay . For example, the dissertation might be your main focus for the last six months of your degree.

Why is the dissertation important?

The dissertation is a test of your capacity for independent research. You are given a lot of autonomy in writing your dissertation: you come up with your own ideas, conduct your own research, and write and structure the text by yourself.

This means that it is an important preparation for your future, whether you continue in academia or not: it teaches you to manage your own time, generate original ideas, and work independently.

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During the planning and writing of your dissertation, you’ll work with a supervisor from your department. The supervisor’s job is to give you feedback and advice throughout the process.

The dissertation supervisor is often assigned by the department, but you might be allowed to indicate preferences or approach potential supervisors. If so, try to pick someone who is familiar with your chosen topic, whom you get along with on a personal level, and whose feedback you’ve found useful in the past.

How will your supervisor help you?

Your supervisor is there to guide you through the dissertation project, but you’re still working independently. They can give feedback on your ideas, but not come up with ideas for you.

You may need to take the initiative to request an initial meeting with your supervisor. Then you can plan out your future meetings and set reasonable deadlines for things like completion of data collection, a structure outline, a first chapter, a first draft, and so on.

Make sure to prepare in advance for your meetings. Formulate your ideas as fully as you can, and determine where exactly you’re having difficulties so you can ask your supervisor for specific advice.

Your approach to your dissertation will vary depending on your field of study. The first thing to consider is whether you will do empirical research , which involves collecting original data, or non-empirical research , which involves analysing sources.

Empirical dissertations (sciences)

An empirical dissertation focuses on collecting and analysing original data. You’ll usually write this type of dissertation if you are studying a subject in the sciences or social sciences.

• What are airline workers’ attitudes towards the challenges posed for their industry by climate change?
• How effective is cognitive behavioural therapy in treating depression in young adults?
• What are the short-term health effects of switching from smoking cigarettes to e-cigarettes?

There are many different empirical research methods you can use to answer these questions – for example, experiments , observations, surveys , and interviews.

When doing empirical research, you need to consider things like the variables you will investigate, the reliability and validity of your measurements, and your sampling method . The aim is to produce robust, reproducible scientific knowledge.

Non-empirical dissertations (arts and humanities)

A non-empirical dissertation works with existing research or other texts, presenting original analysis, critique and argumentation, but no original data. This approach is typical of arts and humanities subjects.

• What attitudes did commentators in the British press take towards the French Revolution in 1789–1792?
• How do the themes of gender and inheritance intersect in Shakespeare’s Macbeth ?
• How did Plato’s Republic and Thomas More’s Utopia influence nineteenth century utopian socialist thought?

The first steps in this type of dissertation are to decide on your topic and begin collecting your primary and secondary sources .

Primary sources are the direct objects of your research. They give you first-hand evidence about your subject. Examples of primary sources include novels, artworks and historical documents.

Secondary sources provide information that informs your analysis. They describe, interpret, or evaluate information from primary sources. For example, you might consider previous analyses of the novel or author you are working on, or theoretical texts that you plan to apply to your primary sources.

Dissertations are divided into chapters and sections. Empirical dissertations usually follow a standard structure, while non-empirical dissertations are more flexible.

Structure of an empirical dissertation

Empirical dissertations generally include these chapters:

• Introduction : An explanation of your topic and the research question(s) you want to answer.
• Literature review : A survey and evaluation of previous research on your topic.
• Methodology : An explanation of how you collected and analysed your data.
• Results : A brief description of what you found.
• Discussion : Interpretation of what these results reveal.
• Conclusion : Answers to your research question(s) and summary of what your findings contribute to knowledge in your field.

Sometimes the order or naming of chapters might be slightly different, but all of the above information must be included in order to produce thorough, valid scientific research.

Other dissertation structures

If your dissertation doesn’t involve data collection, your structure is more flexible. You can think of it like an extended essay – the text should be logically organised in a way that serves your argument:

• Introduction: An explanation of your topic and the question(s) you want to answer.
• Main body: The development of your analysis, usually divided into 2–4 chapters.
• Conclusion: Answers to your research question(s) and summary of what your analysis contributes to knowledge in your field.

The chapters of the main body can be organised around different themes, time periods, or texts. Below you can see some example structures for dissertations in different subjects.

• Political philosophy

This example, on the topic of the British press’s coverage of the French Revolution, shows how you might structure each chapter around a specific theme.

This example, on the topic of Plato’s and More’s influences on utopian socialist thought, shows a different approach to dividing the chapters by theme.

This example, a master’s dissertation on the topic of how writers respond to persecution, shows how you can also use section headings within each chapter. Each of the three chapters deals with a specific text, while the sections are organised thematically.

Like other academic texts, it’s important that your dissertation follows the formatting guidelines set out by your university. You can lose marks unnecessarily over mistakes, so it’s worth taking the time to get all these elements right.

Formatting guidelines concern things like:

• line spacing
• page numbers
• punctuation
• title pages
• presentation of tables and figures

If you’re unsure about the formatting requirements, check with your supervisor or department. You can lose marks unnecessarily over mistakes, so it’s worth taking the time to get all these elements right.

How will you reference your sources?

Referencing means properly listing the sources you cite and refer to in your dissertation, so that the reader can find them. This avoids plagiarism by acknowledging where you’ve used the work of others.

Keep track of everything you read as you prepare your dissertation. The key information to note down for a reference is:

• The publication date
• Page numbers for the parts you refer to (especially when using direct quotes)

Different referencing styles each have their own specific rules for how to reference. The most commonly used styles in UK universities are listed below.

You can use the free APA Reference Generator to automatically create and store your references.

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The words ‘ dissertation ’ and ‘thesis’ both refer to a large written research project undertaken to complete a degree, but they are used differently depending on the country:

• In the UK, you write a dissertation at the end of a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and you write a thesis to complete a PhD.
• In the US, it’s the other way around: you may write a thesis at the end of a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and you write a dissertation to complete a PhD.

The main difference is in terms of scale – a dissertation is usually much longer than the other essays you complete during your degree.

Another key difference is that you are given much more independence when working on a dissertation. You choose your own dissertation topic , and you have to conduct the research and write the dissertation yourself (with some assistance from your supervisor).

Dissertation word counts vary widely across different fields, institutions, and levels of education:

• An undergraduate dissertation is typically 8,000–15,000 words
• A master’s dissertation is typically 12,000–50,000 words
• A PhD thesis is typically book-length: 70,000–100,000 words

However, none of these are strict guidelines – your word count may be lower or higher than the numbers stated here. Always check the guidelines provided by your university to determine how long your own dissertation should be.

At the bachelor’s and master’s levels, the dissertation is usually the main focus of your final year. You might work on it (alongside other classes) for the entirety of the final year, or for the last six months. This includes formulating an idea, doing the research, and writing up.

A PhD thesis takes a longer time, as the thesis is the main focus of the degree. A PhD thesis might be being formulated and worked on for the whole four years of the degree program. The writing process alone can take around 18 months.

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How to Write a First Class Dissertation

How to get a first in your dissertation.

A dissertation paper has two main goals: to prove that the student has acquired extensive knowledge about a selected topic and to demonstrate the student's ability of using pertinent research methods. Knowing how to write a first class dissertation implies a level of knowledge and training fit for future academic endeavours, as well as for achieving professional or personal goals.

A first class dissertation is a research paper of the utmost quality, with a final grade of at least 70 percent. This implies that the paper will show signs of excellence when it comes to clarity, presentation, originality and understanding of the key issues; furthermore, a first class dissertation gives evidence for the student's independent manner of thinking and judgement. Furthermore, when learning how to write a first class dissertation, students need to acknowledge the importance of constant communication with their supervisors. The steady feedback offered this way would assure that any problems encountered during their research would be dealt with immediately. Avoiding one's supervisor is thus a costly mistake, often resulting in the student receiving a second or third class grade for his or her dissertation.

Writing the Dissertation Paper

A student who knows how to write a first class dissertation is able to understand and apply the knowledge offered by his bibliographical sources in a creative manner that demonstrates critical thinking and originality. Furthermore, a first class dissertation requires an excellent use of writing skills when constructing the arguments and bringing the evidence for a certain point of view. The chosen bibliographic materials need to be of the utmost relevance and recency, regardless of the where the student has acquired them from (Internet websites, libraries, etc.).

Generally, a dissertation consists of several separate sections:

• The introduction should provide a background of the chosen study. A well-written thesis needs to be introduced within this section. A student who knows how to write a first class dissertation needs to be able to attract and prepare his readers for the content of the paper. By emphasising on the goals and objectives the dissertation aims to achieve, the author makes the audience more perceptive to the arguments brought within the paper. A good hint would be to edit your introduction once the paper is finished, as this is one of the most difficult parts to write of an academic paper.
• The literature review is the second part of the paper; in it, the author underlines the problems that are going to be discussed, presenting every relevant piece of evidence. By analysing the theories presented by the specialised literature, you will prepare the grounds for the next section of the dissertation, the methodology.
• The methodology enlarges on every specific method of data analysis used in the thesis. Knowing how to write a first class dissertation implies using qualitative research methods, rather than quantitative ones. Furthermore, a research design needs to be specified, along with a timetable that identifies the number of days and weeks spent studying every aspect of the discussion. The methods of analysing the data also need to be specified. Overall, the better the author explains the methods and processes he used for bringing evidence to his thesis, the more credible his paper will be.

A good academic impression is built by offering arguments for all the pros and cons related to the subject of the thesis. Someone who knows how to write a first class dissertation will bring evidence both for and against the subject he aims to prove, and will not refrain from admitting the limitations of his study. Furthermore, every table, statistic, figure or chart needs to be thoroughly explained; failure to do so will result in losing valuable marks.

• The conclusion provides a recap of the whole discussion and brings it to a satisfactory end. Every current issue related to the chosen research topic is to be presented in this section, without adding any new information that asks for additional explanations. A student who knows how to write a first class dissertation will also present the limitations he or she has encountered during the research, and direct the reader to other recommended studies that can provide additional information about the subject. A good conclusion offers a sense of closure to the paper and reinforces the author's credibility at the same time; like the introduction, the conclusion is a section students find quite difficult to construct.
• Lastly, the works cited page and the appendix are added at the end of the dissertation. Pay attention to the formatting style you have chosen; any inadvertencies will automatically lead to the loss of valuable marks.

Use of Language, Style and Formatting

Aiming for a top mark requires paying proper attention to language and style. A first-class academic paper should be written in a formal style, using the appropriate terminology.

A student who knows how to write a first class dissertation will avoid colloquial and informal expressions; however, an excessive use of scientific terminology or technical language is undesirable. Clear, concise sentences are the most appropriate for making oneself understood. A pompous style employing lengthy sentences will probably diminish the interest of the reader.

Furthermore, avoid using the first person in your text; “the researcher/author” is commonly used in academic papers when referring to the person who has devised the thesis. Furthermore, words that express qualitative judgments (such as “bad”, “good”, “perfect”, etc) should be avoided, “correct” or “incorrect” being more fit for presenting your arguments or opinions.

The specifications of the formatting style needs to be respected at all times. Usually, academic papers employ the Harvard or APA style, but instructors may specify the use of other referencing standards.

Lastly, proofread and spell-check the text. If you can show the paper to a native English speaker, do so, asking him or her to tell you where you might improve on your use of language. If you know how to write a first class dissertation, then you know that incorrect use of language and grammar will lower your marks. For the best results, consider using our proofreading and editing section ; furthermore, the dissertation writing section can help you by offering well-written dissertation you can use as models during future academic endeavours.

[button url="http://www.academicsciences.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/How-to-Write-a-First-Class-Dissertation.pdf" ]To download this guide for free, click here![/button]

Are you struggling with the perfect dissertation? Academic Sciences provide custom essays and model answers which can help you manage your dissertation writing and help get you the grade you want. We have a variety of solutions available to you to suit your academic level, time frame and budget. Have a look through our academic guides and if you are still struggling, consider giving us a call or placing an order for your dissertation on-line.

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How to Start Your Dissertation? Getting it Right First Time

Published by Carmen Troy at September 1st, 2021 , Revised On October 10, 2023

If you are unsure about how to start your dissertation and getting it right the first time then you have come to the right place.

All students must possess organisational and time management skills to write their dissertation projects to a high academic standard. Due to the heavy academic workload and personal obligations, many students get behind their work schedules. This results in poor quality of work and high-stress levels. It is vitally important to develop a detailed work plan to properly manage your time and complete each  part of your dissertation  by the deadline you set.

Dissertation Topic Planning

Before doing anything else, you should  choose a dissertation topic  that interests you. Your dissertation project will give you the opportunity to explore and research your chosen topic in depth. Generally, students make use of previous research studies and literature to find a topic that is interesting and manageable. When working on your  dissertation paper , it is imperative that you let your imagination and ideas flow freely. There is no denying the fact that a dissertation is hard work, but at the same time, it gives you the opportunity to achieve a unique academic milestone that could make a substantial difference to your professional career as well.

Choosing an intriguing yet rewarding topic is easier said than done. There are many important factors that need to be considered when deciding on the topic you wish to write about. You may search for an interesting and current research topic in our dissertation topic ideas library . If you are lucky enough, an  idea for a dissertation may pop into your mind without having to do a lot of research. However, generally, students have to spend a considerable amount of time and follow a systematic approach in their search for a suitable dissertation topic  or question.

Get Free Dissertation Writing Topic & Outline Service

It could be that you have too many ideas or too few, and therefore it is suggested to invest time and effort in background reading and thinking before reaching a decision about the topic.

Some Tips and Advice to Help You Start Your Dissertation

• If you have been assigned a  dissertation supervisor , talk to them at an early stage about the topic ideas floating in your mind. If possible, set up a meeting with them to discuss your ideas. In some academic institutions,  undergraduate students are actively discouraged from approaching members of the faculty. So check the procedures of your university before making such a move.
• Search  online libraries and   academic scholarly databases  to find useful articles and journals. You may need to do some desk based research to become familiar with the authentic search sources available on the internet.
• Draw upon your experience as a student, a patient, a member of a team, an employee, and so on.
• Read newspapers and magazines to find current issues in your area of study and develop your research topic from your reading and knowledge.

Contact a reliable online dissertation topic planning help service to get research topic ideas, dissertation plan, and perhaps help with your entire dissertation project .

Choosing the Best Dissertation Topic

Inspiration may come from different places when you are searching for a suitable topic of research. However, it is essential to  select a research problem that can be addressed in a timely and appropriate academic manner. Below are some questions that you should ask yourself before deciding on your  dissertation project :

• Keeping the time and resources available in consideration, would I be able to research the topic I have selected?
• Have I found existing literature within which I could locate my work?
• Would I be able to perform comparative and critical analysis with my chosen topic?
• Will my research topic keep me interested over the period of six to eight months?
• What  type of research I will have to base my dissertation on –  primary or secondary  – qualitative or quantitative?

Also Read:  Dissertation Help From UK’s Best Dissertation Writing Service

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Is Your Dissertation Topic too Broad?

You should avoid too broad a topic particularly if you have to work with time and resource constraints. Being overambitious will land you only in trouble. Thus, it is recommended that you address a small yet manageable question rather than completely failing to find the answer to a complex and confusing research question. The following approach of thinking can help you to narrow the focus of research.

• What type of data collection methods I will be able to deal with keeping the various project constraints in mind?
• Is there a particular data collection method that would help me to stay focused?
• How does the topic relate to my academic and professional ambitions?
• Is there enough literature  available on the topic?

If you are unable to start your dissertation due to your professional or work related commitments then you could get help from our expert dissertation writers. No matter how urgent or complex your requirements might be, we have subject specialists for every field of study.

Record Useful Information and Ideas

• You may find it helpful to record your ideas and useful/relevant information in a research notebook. Objectives of making a research notebook could vary from recording your initial ideas and observations to important points from literature and problems you faced during the research process .
• Make sure that you are keeping an accurate record of the referencing details of all reading material that you read as part of your preliminary desk based research.
• Become familiar with the referencing style that you are required to use for your  dissertation paper . This requirement is usually specified in the formatting guidelines and assessment criteria of your dissertation module.
• If possible, list all the reference resources in alphabetical order as a word file.
• You can also manage your references using any authentic software.

Also Read:  How PHD Thesis is Different to Graduate Level Dissertation

Read, Read and Read!!!

In order to score a high academic grade in your dissertation module, you will be required to do lots of reading. Explore the literature available on your chosen topic. Useful reading material generally includes but is not limited to the most  commonly employed research methods and methodologies , articles and journals published in online academic databases, research studies on a similar topic, and relevant textbooks and case studies.

As a rule of thumb, use at least 4 to 5 reference resources for every 1000 words you write for your dissertation paper. This means that a 10,000 long  dissertation project  will incorporate a minimum of 40 to 50 references.

Being Organised Helps

The process of research and  writing for a dissertation paper  is an evolving one. It will be useful to you if you can continuously take notes of ideas, useful online resources and observations during the preliminary research and data gathering process. Humanly, it may not be possible to remember all sources of information you came across.  Being organized and systematic in your planning and actions  can go a long towards turning your dissertation writing experience into a pleasant one.

Recording important information such as academic sources you found relevant/useful, references to follow up at a later stage, notes on journals and articles you read, and methods of collecting data can be helpful for you in accomplishing your personal development goals.

When is the Right Time to Start Your Dissertation or Thesis?

If you are undergraduate students  enrolled on a three or four-year degree, then you will be assigned the dissertation project during your second/third year. Graduate students, on the other hand, should check their course guidelines to know exactly when they will be required to submit their  dissertation project . As an educated guess, you should give yourself at least 6 full months to produce a dissertation paper to a high-quality standard.

Time Management and Planning Skills

Students should list down all critical stages of their dissertation project which is usually completed over a long period of time. The key is to break down your dissertation into small and manageable chunks and develop a plan to conclude a deadline for each section. This strategy will go a long way towards helping you to get your project done in a timely manner. It is pivotal that you develop a detailed plan of action or dissertation outline at an early stage and get your supervisor’s approval for it. If your project incorporates primary research, then you will need to develop an even more detailed schedule of activities, so you can identify the factors that could hinder your progress.

You will need to allocate a sufficient amount of time for the following activities:

• Finding the best dissertation topic
• Desk based research at an initial stage to find relevant academic sources
• Devising the aim and key objectives of your research
• Writing the introduction chapter
• Reviewing the literature available on your topic
• Develop  methodology framework and selecting the most appropriate methods
• Collection of primary data using questionnaires, surveys, and interviews
• Transcribing data
• Analysis of data using qualitative/quantitative analysis
• Writing the  discussion and  conclusion  sections
• In-text referencing and listing all reference resources used for your study
• Developing the  appendices section
• Proofreading and editing your work

If you now know how to start your dissertation then you might be interested in; How to Write First Class Dissertation Proposal.

Useful Reading Material

• Moore, N. (2000). How to do research. The complete guide to designing and managing research projects . 3rd ed., London, Facet Publishing, chapters 1&2 – objectives and planning
• Rowntree, D. (1998). Learn how to study . 4th ed., London, Warner place, chapter 9 – writing notes
• Seale, C. (2006). Researching society and culture . London, Sage, chapter 7 – planning
• Thomas, G. (2009). How to do Your Research Project . Sage, Los Angeles.
• Walliman, N. (2011). Your Research Project . Sage Publications, London.
• Winkler, A. & McCuin-Metherill, J. (2011). Writing the Research Paper . Thomson Wadsworth, Boston.

If you are still unsure about how to start your dissertation and choose a research topic that would make the process easier for you then you might want to take a look at our dissertation topic and outline service which is designed to help you jump start your dissertation project. Or learn more about our dissertation services if you wish to obtain help with the whole dissertation paper or individual chapters.

Frequenlty Asked Questions

How to start writing a dissertation.

To start writing a dissertation, begin with a clear research question, outline your chapters, gather relevant sources, and establish a writing schedule for consistent progress. Don’t forget to seek guidance from your advisor throughout the process.

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Use of first person in a PhD Thesis

Is there a non written rule to which person to use in the PhD thesis, 5 years of using "We" in the papers have brought me to the innate necessity to do it every time I describe something.

Recently, though, one of my lab-mates told me that I should use I, since it is your work, if the thesis were co-written, then it would be a different story.

Is there any standard in your universities, or do you have any preferred practice.

• writing-style

• 6 What does your university style guide say? What does your supervisor say? –  410 gone Commented Nov 28, 2012 at 7:06
• 13 But using we makes us feel so royal . . . –  geometrian Commented Oct 20, 2014 at 0:39
• 2 Use the first person singular for acknowledgements: ``we thank our parents'' would be distinctly odd, even if `we' are not an only child. –  Shane O Rourke Commented May 17, 2015 at 13:00
• 7 This one strongly objects to being forced to refer to itself in the third person, and will avoid such references completely in preference to needless circumlocution. –  keshlam Commented Aug 20, 2015 at 17:06
• I suspect this is where programming discussion gets the 'we' thing from. –  Pharap Commented Mar 30, 2018 at 3:24

7 Answers 7

I generally avoid "I" in scientific texts altogether, though some authors are in fact using it if they are the sole author. I can't remember seeing it in a thesis though. In texts with a sole author, I usually understand "we" as meaning the author and the reader, and I'd suggest that it's fine to use it in places where it can have that meaning. For example something like "When substituting a by b, we get ..."

A generally useful advice would be to read into some of the theses written in your group, department, and university (in decreasing relevance), and see whether there is a common pattern.

• 1 I also personally prefer "we", though I agree with silvado that the best advice is to check what is done in your research area. That is, in principle, the audience you're writing for, and the ones that will read it for your examination. –  Luke Mathieson Commented Nov 28, 2012 at 8:44
• 36 When you discuss an experiment being done, you can hardly use “we” as “author and reader”. Compare “we can derive B from A” to “I synthesized 3 grams of product K”. –  F'x Commented Nov 28, 2012 at 12:56
• 7 @F'x: I'm typically not writing about experiments, but reading sometimes, and I hardly see the use of either "I" or "we" in this context. To me it appears that most authors use passive voice in such descriptions. I think the reasons is that these protocols should be "de-personalized", focussing on the activity, not the person that does it. –  silvado Commented Nov 29, 2012 at 8:31
• 1 @MHH I agree. Generally the style of experimental papers is very different from theoretical papers. –  silvado Commented Feb 9, 2014 at 8:25
• 5 @begueradj I would still use "we" since it includes the author(s) and reader. It makes the reader feel like he/she is part of the discussion (i.e. the paper that is being read). –  Ryan Dougherty Commented Aug 4, 2014 at 17:43

Summary: Think about the habits and traditions in your field, think about the nature of your field and do not hesitate to take responsibility for your own (possibly not that great) ideas.

Now, let me elaborate more:

The question encourages personal opinions for a good reason. Various sources on writing research papers differ vastly, though it seems majority does not favor the first person "I" form. For one of the more serious in computer science not in favour of "I", see e.g., Knuth's Mathematical Writing (pg.4) - although later on, the material also discusses the opposite (pg.62 and 113).

Now to a personal position. I do make use of "I" in some contexts. Namely, when I write a paper as a single author and I did so in my PhD thesis. At the same time, you should have clear rules when to mix it with "we" and how. For the dissertation, I explained those rules very early on in the preface: I use "I" whenever the text speaks about my own decisions and choices I made and is the default voice. It means, that it's me who is to blame for whatever incorrect decisions exposed in the thesis. Only if I can show that there is an external force which would push anybody on my place to take the same route, I would use "we" to mean the (research) community, or humankind. I use "we", whenever the discourse is explanatory, such as an exposition of a proof. Therein, "we" stands for "me and the reader". I also strictly use "we", whenever I speak about an insight, or a result which was produced in a collaboration, such as developed in a joint research paper with somebody else. As a side-effect, since this voice is not the default one, occurrence of such "we" always enforces a citation to the joint work, which is a Good Thing .

My personal opinion also is that third person is very bad writing style, since it offloads responsibility for the presented results to some external entity. As if it wasn't me who made the stupid decision to push that other guy from the cliff, but the guy was (somehow) pushed from the cliff. In my opinion, "we" solves that problem only a little bit, because now the writer admits a bit of responsibility for the act, but still dilutes it by taking into the game somebody else (either the reader, or the abstract research community). Saying "I did this and that and by doing it I personally found this and that" for me is fully taking responsibility for my results. It's not about bragging, or so. Now in some fields, this might be inappropriate, e.g., in pure mathematics, one studies a problem and is not pushed into any arbitrary decisions (e.g., regarding experimental setup), so a style "we" = "the two of us, you, the reader, and me, the writer" is more appropriate.

• I second that and would add: Think about the habits and traditions in your country respectively language area. In my case, I'm a computer scienctist from Germany, using "I" and "we" in scientific works is an absolute no-no. In contrast, I've seen quite a lot articles in English language which use "I" and "we". –  Stefan Surkamp Commented Aug 20, 2015 at 15:12
• 4 @StefanSurkamp I wrote the original answer being a computer scientist who did his PhD in Germany :-). –  walkmanyi Commented Aug 21, 2015 at 21:38
• @walkmanyi Using "I" in the contexts you outlined is absolutely appropriate for a CS PhD thesis written in the English language. –  apriori Commented Jul 3, 2019 at 13:37

It is interesting to see what Charles Darwin did in his scientific writing.

According to Serendip Studio:

Darwin usually speaks in the first person plural when analyzing empirical evidence he has collected and only uses the first person singular when he is specifically speaking about his own actions, such as, "..many special facts which I have collected," or when he is speaking about his own qualms, such as "I am well aware that there are on, on this view, many cases of difficulty, some of which I am trying to investigate." However, when analyzing his evidence, he always uses "we", such as "we notice", or "we understand"(2). Darwin's change in footing when he is explaining his theory places himself and the reader on the same level and makes him a more "humble" presenter, allowing us to suspend disbelief for at least the time being and trust him.

When Darwin is speaking as the scientist, he uses "we" , and when he is speaking as the human being, he uses "I" . I really like that distinction.

I find the forced use of "we" when you mean "I" misplaced. It is important to sound as natural as possible in your writing - just look at Richard Feynman . You don't have to use convoluted language to win a Nobel prize. Clarity is king.

The first rule, as usual, is: what is expected of you? Ask your advisor, read earlier theses from your group, etc. to get an idea of what is the established practice.

The advice I give, and which I try to follow myself, is to mix the use of “we” and “I” depending on context. Most of the experimental or simulation work is a team effort, so “we” makes a lot of sense to describe that:

From the results of the simulation, we have calculated the spatial dispersion of ∆, which is presented in Figure 42

However, a PhD thesis should show that the applicant has a clear understanding and autonomy in a given research project, and thus is capable of making technical and strategic decisions (though not always alone, of course). As such, I encourage the use of “I” to describe such decisions , orientations and reflexion. I try to give an example:

After consideration of the points discussed above, I decided to focus my effort for the most part in optimizing the gigawattage of the circuit, which I consider based on all the data gathered to be the factor with the largest potential for improvement.

Silvado gave an answer that is, in my opinion, perfectly applicable to mathematical derivations, and the discussion of results. In those cases, you can safely use “we” to mean “the author and reader”, as in “we thus derive theorem X from lemma Y”, or “we see on Figure 42 a clear correlation between A and B”.

• Mixing "we" and "I" can be very confusing, particularly if they're in proximity to one another. The use of "we" can often be omitted through clever rewriting: "Using result A, X leads directly to Y." The use of "I" is probably harder to eliminate, and I would argue it shouldn't be. –  aeismail Commented Nov 28, 2012 at 13:43
• 1 Mixing “we” and “I” is confusing if you use them interchangeably, but not if there is a logic to it. I have now seen it used in quite a few theses, and it works fine. I agree with you that clarity is the one true criterion. –  F'x Commented Nov 28, 2012 at 14:05
• @aeismail That "clever rewriting", to use the passive voice, almost always makes prose harder to understanding and less clear, thereby reducing the value of the piece of writing. –  Ian Sudbery Commented Aug 6, 2020 at 10:27
• 1 The use of first person singular is essential to correctly identify in a thesis the work of the candidate and dissociate it from the work of done in collaboration. –  ZeroTheHero Commented Aug 7, 2020 at 3:01

I always view "we" as "you and the reader" and you and your reader journey through the subject together.

• 2 I think this was already covered quite well by @silvado. Also, as I noted below his answer: when you discuss an experiment being done, you can hardly use “we” as “author and reader”. Compare “we can derive B from A” to “I synthesized 3 grams of product K”. –  F'x Commented Nov 28, 2012 at 20:15

I was told that my PhD thesis should be written in the third person. In cases where it was nessacery to reffer to ones-self the term "the author" could be used but use of this term was discoured. The theory goes that the emphasis in acadmic writing should be on what was done rather than who did it.

Personally I dislike this style. IMO it makes it much harder to be clear about what you did verses what is already common knowlage.

My PhD was in Electrical Engineering at the University of Manchester in the UK.

• Third person - masculine or feminine? –  Floris Commented Feb 10, 2017 at 13:49

I am a retired professor. I was taught, and I always required, that theses and dissertations be written in 3rd person or, on rare occasions, in 1st person plural. Towards the end of my career, I had students increasingly writing in first person singular. This grated on my nerves enormously. Why? It seemed arrogant and ignored the substantial assistance provided by the committee and the funding agency. Also, it flew in the face of unspoken tradition: that scientists did their work with humility for the betterment of society. Any recognition of the scientist should come later from society at large and the community of scientists.

• 2 We sound like a retired professor. –  henning no longer feeds AI Commented Aug 6, 2020 at 20:20

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Strategies for writing a dissertation: write before you’re ‘ready’

Reading isn’t writing, and knowing about your topic isn’t writing. So, what should graduate students do to get started and make steady progress? Monique Dufour suggests practising well before it’s time to write the thesis or dissertation

Monique Dufour

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How to structure your phd thesis, rip assessment, emotions and learning: what role do emotions play in how and why students learn, with ai at their fingertips, are students still learning.

You’ve completed the coursework of your graduate programme and passed your comprehensive exams with flying colours. You know the literature, you have a novel idea, and you have collected preliminary data. It’s time to write your thesis.

Why is it so hard to start (never mind generate momentum and make steady progress)?

Graduate programmes in the US are often structured on the assumption that reading, discussion and research will prepare a student to write the thesis. But reading isn’t writing. Knowing about your topic isn’t writing. Conducting research and having great conversations with your advisers do not automatically translate to a capacity for writing papers or chapters. Even writing seminar papers may feel surprisingly different from tackling this long, significant piece of independent scholarship.

• Tips for surviving the first year of your PhD
• Get your PhD thesis beach ready
• ‘Augmenting’ the doctoral thesis in preparation for a viva

What you need is a writing practice, a habit of using writing as part of your thinking and research. In a writing practice, you write before you are “ready”, before the ideas have crystallised in your mind and, crucially, before you officially enter the thesis-writing phase of your programme. You don’t wait until you are assigned to do so to write or until you need to produce and deliver professional work. You write for yourself , to develop your facility for translating ideas into words and sentences.

Writing for yourself to turn practice into words

If you want to do something well, you need to practise. No wonder, then, that many graduate students who wait until they enter the thesis phase to develop a writing practice may find themselves stuck. They are confronted with the need to write on the spot at the highest-stakes moment in their programme. When this happens, to comfort their apprehension, they return to reading or collecting more data, as though these comfort zones will make them more “ready” to write.

You don’t need permission from your adviser to start a writing practice early in your programme. This writing is for you. Yes, you will likely write material that finds its way into your thesis drafts. But the main value of this work is that you establish a comfortable relationship with writing, with its pleasures and its challenges. You will reap the benefits of your practice through your dedication over time.

I recommend experimenting with these approaches to developing a writing practice.

Write regularly

Put “writing practice” in your calendar and show up for it. Do this with a frequency that is aspirational but actionable. You will build the habit and build trust in yourself. Try my version of the pomodoro technique to shape your writing sessions.

Keep a dialogic notebook

To take dialogic notes (a form of Cornell Notes), draw a line down the centre of a page. On one side, note what you’re taking in – what you are hearing, observing or reading (for instance, at a lecture, note key concepts, explanations or equations). On the other side of the page, engage with what you’re taking in. What does it provoke you to think about? Does it raise questions to explore? Uncertainties to clarify? Connections to forge?

Dialogic notetaking is a tool of memory; it helps you to retain what you hear and read. It is a tool of thought ; it sparks ideas, insights and questions. You can explore and experiment and play. It is also a tool of expression; you learn to put your perceptions and ideas into words. It worked for Leonardo . It can work for you.

Pause regularly to review and synthesise

Amid the demands of graduate school, writing pieces that you will not hand in or don’t “count” may seem like a waste of time. But regular writing review sessions will pay off. I recommend that scholarly writers (graduate students and faculty alike) set aside about 30 minutes a week to write about the important things that they are learning and/or thinking about and connecting them to what they already know.

Synthesis is an essential skill that requires intentional effort and practice. Take time in your writing practice to bring together the disparate things you are learning, to connect them to each other and to your own research questions.

Ask and explore questions

Turn to your notebook to write out the questions that arise in your mind as you work in the lab or read the literature. Take a few sentences to explore those questions. You don’t need to figure out the answers. The value lies in the practice of moving that amorphous sense of a question from your head to the written form. When you get stuck in a project, ask yourself: “What am I trying to figure out?” Your goal is to move yourself from the inchoate feelings of inadequacy and discomfort to the empowering experience of problem-definition and problem-solving.

When you write before you feel ready, you will learn a surprising truth: that you get ready by writing.

Monique Dufour is an associate professor of history as well as a faculty fellow in faculty affairs at Virginia Tech. 

If you would like advice and insight from academics and university staff delivered direct to your inbox each week, sign up for the Campus newsletter .

For further reading on this topic, see From Student to Scholar: A Guide to Writing Through the Dissertation Stage by Keith Hjortshoj (Routledge, 2019).

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• Stanford University
• Wednesday, July 3

PhD Dissertation Defense: Manish Ayushman

• Bioengineering

Wednesday, July 3, 2024 10:30am PT

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AllenX 101X

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Title : Elucidating the Role of Local Matrix Mechanics in Stem Cell Differentiation and Joint Disease Progression in 3D: A Hydrogel-Based Approach

Abstract : The human body comprises different tissue types with unique and diverse mechanical properties. Such diversity in tissue mechanics can be mimicked using engineered hydrogels with tunable properties as 3D cell niches for promoting tissue regeneration or modeling disease progression. Such hydrogels can be engineered to have tunable stiffness or viscoelasticity, which can modulate stem cell differentiation and soft tissue cancer progression. However, previous research largely focuses on bulk tissue mechanics. The role of local pericellular tissue mechanics in modulating cell fates and disease progression remains understudied due to a lack of suitable hydrogel tools and characterization methods. Our lab has developed unique sliding hydrogels (SG), which contain mobile crosslinks and ligands that can slide at the molecular scale. SG exhibits comparable bulk mechanical properties to a conventional 3D chemical hydrogel (CG) but allows significantly higher local matrix reorganizability facilitated by the sliding crosslinks. My thesis focuses on utilizing SG and CG hydrogels as tools to elucidate how local tissue mechanics modulate stem cell differentiation and osteoarthritis (OA) progression. In my presentation, I will first highlight the biophysical mechanisms by which local matrix reorganizability in SG enhances stem cell differentiation into cartilage. We established novel atomic force microscopy and microrheology-based methods to characterize local hydrogel mechanics. Interestingly, we observed that stem cells in SG exhibited a rapid minutes-scale ‘dancing’ behavior associated with dynamic hydrogel deformations and increased cytoskeletal and nuclear dynamics. We observed that early-stage drivers of cell dancing are critical for SG-enhanced stem cell differentiation. Importantly, we demonstrate that cell dancing occurs in other hydrogel platforms and when differentiating to multiple lineages. Next, we engineered the design of SG to demonstrate that local matrix reorganizability enhances stem cell differentiation in a dose-dependent manner. Finally, we demonstrate that SG can attenuate inflammation of OA cartilage cells by inducing a similar ‘dancing’ behavior. This behavior induces chromatin condensation and suppresses NF-κB signaling, a key driver of inflammation. We showed that drugs promoting chromatin condensation could reduce OA cell inflammation in 3D. In summary, my thesis shows that local tissue mechanics significantly impact cell behavior in 3D, influencing tissue regeneration and disease progression. Understanding these mechanisms could lead to new treatments that enhance tissue regeneration or slow disease progression by targeting how cells respond to their mechanical environment.

Please contact  Madelyn Bernstein  for the Zoom link

• Bournemouth
• King's
• University of East Anglia

This grad wrote her dissertation on Olivia Rodrigo and she actually signed it at her concert

Imagine being called a smart girl by Olivia Rodrigo

A uni grad has written her entire dissertation on Olivia Rodrigo and actually got her to sign it at her concert in Lisbon. I am obsessed!

Lorenza Sofrá is an economics and business grad from LUISS Guido Carli University in Rome. Her thesis is titled: “Navigating the Modern Career Landscape: A Comparative Analysis of Olivia Rodrigo’s Career Trajectory and the Protean and Boundaryless Career Model” and it explores Olivia Rodrigo’s career path.

But at the final show of the Europe leg of the GUTS Tour in Lisbon, Lorenza managed to get noticed by Olivia herself who spotted her sign from the crowd and signed her dissertation. “I was in shock and couldn’t believe it was happening,” Lorenza told The Tab. “I was completely overwhelmed, crying uncontrollably.”

Lorenza has been a huge fan of Olivia Rodrigo ever since the start of her career. “Even before she released Driver’s License,” she said. But she believes she shares some “remarkable similarities” with Oliva that make her music extremely relatable to her, including that they were both born in 2003 and are both Pisces.

“Olivia is the only artist I am completely obsessed with and I never get tired of listening to her. I feel a deep connection to her and her work, which is why I knew I wanted to include her in my thesis. Initially, I didn’t anticipate that my thesis would be entirely about her, but my strong connection to her artistry made it an inevitable choice.”

@lorenza.sofra Please tag @Olivia Rodrigo @livies hq ❤️ ♬ suono originale – Lolla

Lorenza wasn’t initially planning on writing her whole diss on Olivia and her work as she “didn’t think it would be possible” so originally thought about just including her in some way. But her final proposal was all about her and “to my surprise, my supervisor approved it,” she told The Tab.

The Italian student really enjoyed writing her Olivia Rodrigo diss and she said writing about such a fun topic definitely made it more relaxing and enjoyable. But one of the highlights of the whole process was that she actually got to speak to Jennifer Dustman, Olivia’s vocal coach from when she was younger. “She offered incredible insights into the early stages of Olivia’s career, which added a fascinating dimension to my work,” Lorenza said.

For her work, Lorenza “delved into the smallest details of Olivia’s career, ensuring a comprehensive analysis. In the final chapter, I connected all the elements to explain which type of career path Olivia Rodrigo is following.”

So after all the hard work, she said she was determined to be noticed by Olivia and get her to sign her dissertation. So before the Lisbon show she decided to make a sign which reads: ““I wrote my bachelor’s degree thesis about you, can you sign it?”

She started queuing at the venue around 11am to get near the front to try and be noticed and she did! As she was holding up the sign, Olivia noticed it and said: “Oh my gosh. There’s a sign that says ‘I wrote my bachelor’s degree thesis about you, can you sign it?’ Fuck yes, smart girl! Oh my god! I wonder what your work is about, wow. Look at that!”

She then passes it to her and she looks through it and says: “Oh my god she really did! This is amazing! It’s so thick I think this is thicker than my own diary!”

She read out the title and added: “Wow, you’re so cool! This is like the coolest thing ever, you’re so smart you are making me feel smarter! Congrats smart girl” before signing it and writing: “All my love, thanks for coming, Olivia Rodrigo.”

Whilst it was happening, Lorenza said: “I found myself on the floor, overwhelmed with joy and crying. She mentioned my thesis two more times during the show, once before performing jealousy, jealousy and again when she caught a shirt from a fan. It was unbelievable and surreal.

@lorenza.sofra THANK U🩷 @Olivia Rodrigo ♬ teenage dream – ⭐️

“Olivia is truly the sweetest person. She was incredibly kind throughout our interaction, taking her time to check out my thesis, read the title, and even call me smart a few times. I am so grateful to her and couldn’t be happier.”

Alexa, play jealousy, jealousy by Olivia Rodrigo!

Have you written your diss on something equally as iconic and wanna be featured? Let us know by emailing  [email protected] . 

Related stories recommended by this writer:

• This Glasgow law student wrote her dissertation on the re-recording of Taylor Swift’s songs

• Hi Barbie! Meet the student who has written her entire dissertation on the Barbie movie

•  Meet the Exeter student who’s written her entire dissertation on Harry Styles

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Surface functionalization of hydrogels below the length scale of heterogeneity: Methods and high-throughput production

Creating synthetic materials that mimic native tissue is an overarching goal in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. It is essential to embed molecular-resolution chemical patterning into soft synthetic polymers to achieve this. Even though fundamental principles from surface science offer broad control over the position of even individual atoms on a pristine surface, this degree of control remains restricted to two-dimensional hard crystalline materials under particular environmental conditions that are incompatible with life. Therefore, developing strategies to translate these principles into soft, amorphous interfaces is challenging . This will lead to the development of nanopatterned soft materials that closely resemble native tissue. Popular approaches in materials science fail to produce such high-resolution polymers .

Hydrogels are soft, three-dimensional networks that can hold large amounts of an aqueous solvent while retaining their structure. These materials have applicability in contexts where polymer materials must interface with biology (e.g., drug delivery, biosensing, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine) as one can easily tune their mechanical, chemical, and biological properties. However, the main limitation of these materials is that the hydrogel network is amorphous, with substantial variability in mesh size up to the micron-scale. This limits their application when highly structured interactions with biomolecules, typically at sub-10 nm scales, are required. This dissertation shows a strategy to generate 1 nm-wide ordered patterns of functional groups on polyacrylamide (PAAm) hydrogel surfaces. When 1 nm-wide linear patterns are transferred to PAAm, patterning specific biological polyelectrolyte interactions at the hydrogel surface is possible. This represents a first step towards developing robust methods for nanopattern hydrogels at the proposed resolution.

One last subject this thesis dissertation seeks to explore is the extension of chemical patterning to a dynamic range of scales to adapt this technological advancement to industrial setups. Enabling the practical applicability of nanopatterned soft materials in macroscopic contexts (e.g., synthetic tissue development, wearable electronics, etc). However, extending this degree of control to a high throughput process applicable to heterogeneous interfaces remains a challenge. We demonstrated a scalable inkjet printing method to produce functional hierarchical patterns on two-dimensional crystalline substrates, which can be transferred to hydrogels. Finally, we studied the specific biosensing capabilities of these micro-patterned surfaces.

Schmidt Science Polymaths Award

Nsf-che-msn2108966, degree type.

• Doctor of Philosophy

Campus location

• West Lafayette

Advisor/Supervisor/Committee Chair

Additional committee member 2, additional committee member 3, additional committee member 4, usage metrics.

• Analytical chemistry not elsewhere classified

• Faculty Experts

Doctoral student is the first at TXST to receive NAEd/Spencer Dissertation Fellowship

STUDENT EXPERIENCE

Kate Malazonia | June 25, 2024

Lino Guajardo, a fifth-year doctoral student in mathematics education at Texas State University, has received the NAEd/Spencer Dissertation Fellowship. Guajardo is the first-ever TXST student to have received this prestigious write-up award from the National Academy of Education with financial support from the Spencer Foundation.

With over 400 alumni, who include many of today's leading education researchers, the fellowship encourages a new generation of scholars from various disciplines and professional fields to undertake research relevant to improving education. Fellows receive $27,500 for one academic year. Additionally, they participate in two professional development retreats. Lastly, fellows choose an NAEd member or another esteemed scholar as a mentor, providing guidance and support throughout the academic year.

NAEd/Spencer Fellows are working on dissertations that have the potential to bring fresh perspectives to the theory or practice of education. Guajardo was one of 35 fellows selected from a pool of over 380 scholars.

“It makes me feel honored and humbled to have received such a prestigious award,” Guajardo said.

Guajardo received a bachelor of science and a master of science in mathematics, both from TXST. However, Guajardo did not always know that mathematics education was a field they could pursue. Guajardo began their journey when they chose a mathematics major as an undergraduate student.

“I thought I would become a high-school teacher or mathematician,” they said. “I soon fell in love with the world of mathematical proof.”

During the summer before beginning their master’s degree, Guajardo was shown the world of mathematics education research by one of TXST’s faculty members, Cody Patterson, Ph.D.

“I like to describe mathematics education as the intersection between psychology and mathematics," Guajardo said. "I realized that not only could I work in mathematics, but I could listen to others talk about mathematics as well.”

Guajardo’s awards and accolades also include:

• 2023-2024 Graduate College Doctoral Research Support Fellowship
• 2022 Ross and Sarah Wayment Endowed Scholarship
• 2021 Rapid Fire Research-Math Education Scholarship
• 2020-2021 Texas State Doctoral Merit Fellowship

Guajardo is currently a research assistant for Paul Dawkins, Ph.D., with whom they are working on a grant focused on developing a curriculum for introduction to proof courses. Guajardo’s current research focuses on investigating how mathematics majors attempt to understand the proofs they see in their junior and senior-level proof-based courses.

“This area of research is important for my field, as current research has focused on the perspectives of mathematicians or mathematics education researchers or in comparing students to mathematicians,” they said. “Although this information is helpful, it is also important to consider the students’ perspectives on how they learn and attempt to understand. With this information, we can develop better interventions to help students succeed in their courses.”

In the future, Guajardo hopes to work at a Carnegie classified R1 or R2 institution where they can teach and continue their research to help support future students in their courses.

“I hope with my research, I can begin widening the ‘STEM pipeline’ in various ways,” they said. “This is an ultimate goal of mine, as mathematics should not be a barrier to those who wish to learn.”

The NAEd/Spencer Dissertation Fellowship application process required Guajardo to turn their 80+ page dissertation document into a 10-page narrative. Guajardo attributes their success to the importance of their research, their research advisor’s and dissertation committee's feedback, and that they could communicate their work to a general education audience.

Kristen Lew, Ph.D., Guajardo’s research advisor, had many positive remarks about them.

“Lino is a self-motivated and communicative individual with a remarkable work ethic and a genuine interest in and talent for mathematics education research,” Lew said. “I have had the pleasure to witness tremendous growth in Lino’s scholarly skills over the years. Lino is a superlative scholar with a passion for community building within the mathematics department.”

Guajardo advises future applicants to gain as much feedback on their applications as possible.

“If you are in a very niche field of education, have someone whose research is in more general education look over the narrative, focusing on clarity and terminology to someone who is not in the field,” they said.

Visit The Graduate College awards news page to read more about past awardees.

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Program in Latin American Studies

Ingrid Brioso Rieumont *22 awarded Honorable Mention for Best Dissertation by Caribbean Studies Association

Congratulations to SPO alumna Ingrid Brioso Rieumont, whose dissertation “Representaciones póstumas en Cuba y Brasil, 1870-1910,” has been awarded Honorable Mention for Best Dissertation by the Caribbean Studies Association.(Link is external) Brioso Rieumont is currently at work on her first book, Unformed Slavery: Preexistence and Postmortem in Nineteenth-Century Cuba and Brazil. Drawing from canonical texts by Cirilo Villaverde, Machado de Assis, and understudied Afro-Cuban writers such as Martín Morúa Delgado, the book explores the attempt to extend slavery into the existence of the unborn and the deceased. It examines how these states serve as a form of poesis, where control becomes elusive. 

“I would like to extend my gratitude to my former advisors Pedro Meira Monteiro, Rachel Price, and reader Rubén Gallo for their invaluable guidance and support, which greatly contributed to this achievement.”

"Brioso Rieumont engages with great mastery across two of the key texts of Cuban and Brazilian C19th fiction in this thesis, not only with an impressive command of the texts themselves and the substantial and influential criticism on them, but by bringing a startlingly fresh perspective that contributes to the growing, very recent, and key scholarship in African American and Atlantic studies of enslavement ranging from cultural histories and anthropologies to economic and psychoanalytical approaches. As such, the dissertation dialogues both with a broad Latin American tradition (in Portuguese and Spanish) and with an Anglophone scholarly and cultural tradition. In addition, there is a provocative and carefully argued reading of photographs of enslaved people in Brazil and Cuba which continues and expands the discussion of modes of articulation of enslaved/Black subjectivity in this period."

"...An additional contribution then of this outstanding thesis is its investigation into visuality as a mode of poesis in literature which draws on the work of Saidiya Hartman and others who have argued for the importance of attending to the materiality and visuality of subjection while questioning and extending it."

Brioso Rieumont is an Assistant Professor of Latin American and Caribbean Studies at Dartmouth College. At Princeton, she was supervised by Professors Pedro Meira Monteiro , Rachel Price as co-advisors and Rubén Gallo as reader. She successfully defended her dissertation on January 28, 2022 . 

Home > ETDS > Dissertations and Theses > 6610

Dissertations and Theses

Design and test of asynchronous systems using the link and joint model.

Ebelechukwu Esimai , Portland State University Follow

Portland State University. Department of Computer Science

First Advisor

Marly Roncken

Term of Graduation

Spring 2024

Date of Publication

Document type.

Dissertation

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Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Computer Science

Computer Science

Physical Description

1 online resource ( pages)

Asynchronous circuits offer numerous advantages, including low energy consumption and good composability and scalability. However, they remain meagerly adopted in the mainstream semiconductor industry. One reason is the limited number of design tools available to help designers navigate design complexity, particularly the myriad of asynchronous implementation styles.

This dissertation focuses on managing the myriad of asynchronous implementation styles by utilizing a circuit-neutral model, called Links and Joints , and embedding this Link-Joint approach into a design flow. Although years of past work have already laid the groundwork, the work in this dissertation identifies and addresses key missing pieces.

First, the dissertation presents a design and test methodology centered around Links and Joints that exploits the similarities between multiple circuit implementation styles. This methodology offers interface uniformity and generality for various asynchronous circuit families and protocols, as well as flexibility in implementation choices and circuit initialization.

Second, this dissertation shows the Link-Joint methodology embedded in a design flow. The resulting flow, called Ọnà (/or-NUHR/, Yoruba for "way"), includes compilation and refinement steps for transforming high-level parallel programs with message passing via circuit-neutral Link-Joint networks into asynchronous circuits, postponing choices in protocol and circuit family as late as possible. Ọnà also carries along test and debug, using a uniform test approach that fosters test reuse from one abstraction level to another.

Ọnà makes it easy to insert asynchrony appropriate for each design part. The dissertation demonstrates this ease by providing methodology and design flow support for various protocols such as 2- and 4-phase protocols, level- and pulse- and transition signaling logic, bundled data, and circuit families such as Click, GasP, Set-Reset, Mousetrap, Micropipelines, and the Single Flux Quantum (*SFQ) superconductor family. The dissertation also demonstrates that mixing and matching different circuit implementation styles in Ọnà is flexible and straightforward.

© 2024 Ebelechukwu Esimai

In Copyright. URI: http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/ This Item is protected by copyright and/or related rights. You are free to use this Item in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you need to obtain permission from the rights-holder(s).

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Esimai, Ebelechukwu, "Design and Test of Asynchronous Systems Using the Link and Joint Model" (2024). Dissertations and Theses. Paper 6610.

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Title: first-order logic with being a thesis modal operator.

Abstract: We introduce syntactic modal operator $\BOX$ for \textit{being a thesis} into first-order logic. This logic is a modern realization of R. Carnap's old ideas on modality, as logical necessity (J. Symb. Logic, 1946) \cite{Ca46}. We place it within the modern framework of quantified modal logic with a variant of possible world semantics with variable domains. We prove completeness using a kind of normal form and show that in the canonical frame, the relation on all maximal consistent sets, $R = \{\langle \Gamma, \Delta \rangle : \forall A (\BOX A \in \Gamma \Longrightarrow A \in \Delta)\}$, is a universal relation. The strength of the $\BOX$ operator is a proper extension of modal logic $\mathsf{S5}$. Using completeness, we prove that satisfiability in a model of $\BOX A$ under arbitrary valuation implies that $A$ is a thesis of formulated logic. So we can syntactically define logical entailment and consistency. Our semantics differ from S. Kripke's standard one \cite{Kr63} in syntax, semantics, and interpretation of the necessity operator. We also have free variables, contrary to Kripke's and Carnap's approaches, but our notion of substitution is non-standard (variables inside modalities are not free). All $\BOX$-free first-order theses are provable, as well as the Barcan formula and its converse. Our specific theses are \linebreak[4] $\BOX A \to \forall x A$, $\neg \BOX (x = y)$, $\neg \BOX \neg (x = y)$, $\neg \BOX P(x)$, $\neg \BOX \neg P(x)$. We also have $\POS \exists x A(x) \to \POS A(^{y}/_{x})$, and $\forall x \BOX A(x) \to \BOX A(^{y}/_{x})$, if $A$ is a $\BOX$-free formula.

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