fast food addiction essay

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Fast Food Should Be Banned: Analysis of Health Effects

• Categories: Fast Food Junk Food Obesity

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Published: Jan 28, 2021

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Introduction, why should fast food be banned, works cited.

• Oliver, J. (2010, February). Teach every child about food. TED. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/jamie_oliver?language=en
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Overweight & obesity: Adult obesity facts. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html
• World Health Organization. (2021). Obesity and overweight. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight
• American Heart Association. (n.d.). Fast food and your heart. Retrieved from https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/fast-food-and-your-heart
• Stuckler, D., & Nestle, M. (2012). Big food, food systems, and global health. PLoS Medicine, 9(6), e1001242. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001242
• Ludwig, D. S., Peterson, K. E., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2001). Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: A prospective, observational analysis. The Lancet, 357(9255), 505-508. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04041-1
• Rosenheck, R. (2008). Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: A systematic review of a trajectory towards weight gain and obesity risk. Obesity Reviews, 9(6), 535-547. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00477.x
• Nestle, M. (2013). Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health (3rd ed.). University of California Press.
• Roberts, C., Troop, N., & Connors, M. (2019). Eating Behaviours and Obesity. In R. F. Bell & J. M. Lundahl (Eds.), Handbook of Obesity Treatment (pp. 55-67). Springer.
• Smith, T., Smith, B., & Kelly, P. (2018). "Just one more piece of cake." Obesogenic environments and the irresistible pull of sweet treats. In M. K. Demauro (Ed.), Sugar Consumption and Health (pp. 61-76). Nova Science Publishers.

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An opinion essay about fast food.

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Fast Food Addiction Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Leadership , Health , Education , Environmental Issues , Food , World , Knowledge , Body

Words: 1200

Published: 11/08/2019

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Fast food is a real scourge of the contemporary world. Not only does it lead to obesity, but it also causes a number of illnesses, indigestion, and self-destruction. Dieticians, nutritionists, and doctors have been screaming and shouting about the problem world is facing nowadays, let alone the United States of America. Fast food industry has literally bulked into the contemporary society, making people first and foremost addicted to it. Fast food is ruthless to everyone, irrespective of his/ her age, nationality, social status, profession, etc. The world has turned into a huge fast food customer, where the only ones who benefit are the producers. However, despite the fact that everyone is aware of the scourge, at the same time it turns out that little do we know why exactly fast food is so dangerous. The article ‘Why You Should Avoid Fast Food at All Costs’ by Richard Stossel is shedding light on the process of fast food production. He is opening to the reader all the pros and cons of fast food, all the nuts and bolts, which, by the end of the story, will never leave one indifferent. The article itself was written a year ago after Richard conducted a huge research to understand why people should steer clear of fast food. The author is a network engineer with deep knowledge in Chinese material arts, medicine and chi-gung. He is specialised in many Chinese health and healing arts, what enabled him help many people lose weight and overcome various health ailments. Richard is spreading his knowledge in nutrition, meditation, physics, and supplements through the web, seminars, and articles. His main goal is to open people’s eyes, to fight with ignorance about what we are actually eating. The topic, which was chosen by Richard for this article is more than timely. There have already been a number of articles devoted to fast food; however, the majority of them are more focused on the figures: the percentage of obese people, the number of illnesses, the geographical aspect of the problem, etc. Nonetheless, this particular article is ‘harder’ than the others, as it is revealing the process of production, describing even slightest details in all the colours. There is a feeling that throughout the article Richard is simply trying to disgust the reader to fast food, and he is doing it perfectly. Richard Stossel structured his article, dividing it into several main topics, which are finally tightly connected with each other, and finally lead to the same conclusion – unhealthy. In his first part ‘the Processing Line’ Richard is revealing the secrets of the production industry, conditions and sources of labor. The second part ‘Animal Cruelty’ is devoted to the quality of meat people consume. The third and fourth parts tell the reader about chemicals, which are used to add taste or color to food. And finally, the fifth part is more scientific one, as it describes what happens with our body if we consume such food. If one compares the number of cattle processed per hour twenty years ago and contemporary volumes, he will be shocked – 175 compared to 400 cattle per hour respectively. The process has become like an assembly line – people are standing close to each other performing the same motions with a knife. No doubt, when the process is so incessant, percentage of mistake is incredibly high: for example, they can cut off the wrong parts of the carcass. According to Stossel, such pace of work has even lead to a number of deaths, either caused by machine injures, or accidental falling into machine itself. Even though the second theory sounds a bit exaggerated, Richard claims that such accidents did happen. If some reader may not believe in the abovementioned, as these are single instance facts, but the way animals are bred has been proved many times before. First and foremost, cattle are usually kept in abominable conditions, where they are standing close to each other, irrespective of their health condition. Not only do animals receive hormones and cramped feedlots, but they are finally slaughtered even if they are in poor health. The reason of their health problems is surely feed. Up to 1997 almost 75% of the US cattle were fed with livestock wastes, which remain of dead sheep and cattle. Even though later it was banned by the FDA due to bovine spongiform encephalopathy, also known as ‘mad cow disease’, current FDA regulations actually allow turning dead cattle and poultry into feed. Well, indeed, if one thinks this statement over, he will understand that meat we consume is frankly bred on carrion. Such a statement not only does disgust, but also explains such a huge number of poisoned people. However, unfortunately, these factors are not the only ones which cause the abundance of problems. Flavor and color chemicals also do their job perfectly. If somebody bought food relying on its color and flavor, he/ she would never do it again, as this article reveals all the truth about such chemicals as Ethyl-2-methyl butyrate, methyl-2-peridylketone, or Ethyl-3- hydroxybutanoate. One will never understand that he is eating some methyl-2-peridylketone, as it has a perfect taste of popcorn. All the taste as well as color chemicals are widely used in food production. Not only do they help to attract more customers, but also convince a consumer that he is buying health and fresh food. Here lies deception! Almost all the products we may find in a shop are soaked through with these ‘frauds’. Taking a look at a more medical side of the story, it is important to mention that every person should consume digestive enzymes to ensure proper digestion. As it has been already proved, all the above mentioned products lack enzymes, nutritional and energy elements; the body is consuming its own digestive enzymes to digest food. Contrary to dead food, natural raw food is rich with its own natural enzymes, which help the body process food. It is extremely important to get these natural enzymes, as it is common knowledge that not only is this element a part of immune system, but they are also responsible for every process in the human body, including heart beating. Throughout this article Richard is not trying to scare the reader, he is not convincing to give up fast food; he is simply trying to help people think. Unfortunately, people are too ignorant about the problem – our country is one of the ‘fattest’ countries in the world, it is widely spread among children and adults, irrespective of their nationality. The real problem is that if we do not stop and think right now, the population will be degenerating, and after this process starts it would be hard to turn back.

Works cited

Stossel, Richard. “Why you should avoid fast food at all costs.” Natural News, 6 Jan. 2009. Web. 4 Feb. 2011.

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Causes and Effects of Fast-Food Addiction

At the beginning of his career, Brad Pitt worked for El Pollo Loco to pay the bills for his acting classes. The fast-food industry may have given the world one of the most talented actors, but is it enough to turn a blind eye to all the adverse effects it exerts on our health? According to recent statistics, approximately 33% of adults and 17% of children and adolescents in the United States have been diagnosed with obesity. Studies show that those who frequently eat fast food have an increased risk of progressing from simple consumption to addiction. Even though fast food has its advantages, such as saving time and effort, as well as the convenience of a developed network of chain restaurants, people should realize that this food choice causes significant damage to their health, and if they continue eating fast food, they will become addicted to it.

Causes of Fast-Food Consumption

The main reasons for fast-food consumption among adults and children are a lack of time on the part of the former and the susceptibility to advertising for the latter. One of the most evident characteristics of fast food is its convenience because, as Van der Horst, Brunner, and Siegrist (2011) state, it “saves time and reduces the required physical and mental effort for food provisioning” (p. 597). Working mothers admit that even though pizza is not the most palatable food, it still helps to feed the family when they do not have enough time or energy to cook a healthy dinner. Researchers also have found that those who do not like cooking and refuse to spend their efforts preparing dinner are more likely to consume fast food (Richardson, Boone-Heinonen, Popkin, & Gordon-Larsen, 2011).

Several studies suggest that, unlike adults, children and adolescents consume fast food because of the extensive marketing activity of such fast food “giants” as McDonald’s, Subway, Taco Bell, Starbucks, and others (Boyland & Halford, 2013; Lichtenberg, 2012; Schlosser, 2012). According to Boyland and Halford (2013), “greater than 60% of overweight incidence” among American children and adolescents is attributed to television viewing (p. 238). Children are the primary targets of aggressive fast-food advertising because they are considered as “teenage and adult shoppers of the future,” which means that they tend to develop “brand loyalty” and remain consumers of the same product brands even after becoming adults (Boyland & Halford, 2013). Obviously, the reasons for fast-food consumption differ among various age groups; however, despite their dissimilar reasons, both adults and children are equally exposed to the harmful effects of fast food.

Everyone knows that unlimited consumption of fast food leads to such adverse effects as obesity; however, not all people realize the risk of developing fast-food addiction. Over the last three decades, obesity has become one of the primary concerns of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. According to Garcia, Sunil, and Hinojosa (2012), in the period between 2000 and 2005, the rate of obesity increased by 24%, the rate of morbid obesity increased by 50%, and the rate of super morbid obesity increased by 75% (p. 810). A current study reports that 33% of adults and 17% of children suffer from obesity, and forecasts a 130% increase in morbid obesity prevalence over the next two decades (Finkelstein et al., 2012).

In addition to these figures, people who like to consume fast food should remember that their innocent love for deep-fried potatoes, burgers, pizza, and tacos may turn into serious dependence. Garber and Lustig (2011) found that fast food contains several components “that have been investigated for addictive properties” and may trigger the development of addiction, though the rate of its progression significantly differs from the progression of drug and alcohol addiction (p. 148). Researchers also stress the idea that once a person is diagnosed with obesity, the individual’s diet may cause stress that will contribute to addictive overeating (Garber & Lustig, 2011). Since obesity and the risk of fast-food addiction have become two of the main concerns of society, the U.S. government has been pursuing various policies in order to reduce the adverse effects of fast-food consumption.

Assuming that people consume an excess number of calories because of the limited awareness of the calorie content of fast foods, the U.S. Congress passed the Affordable Care Act, obliging all big chain restaurants to publish calorie content on their menus. This policy seems to be reasonable, since both adults and adolescents, not to mention children, often do not count calories, or they may underestimate the number of calories in fast food. Block et al. (2013) conducted a study of 3,000 diners in six fast-food restaurant chains and found that the majority of their customers “underestimated the calories of meals, especially if the meal was large” (p. 6). Such results allow considering that the Affordable Care Act may help increase the awareness of people and show them the importance of calorie counting. Namba’s (2013) research stresses the importance of the Affordable Care Act, considering the issue from a different angle as it expresses the idea that the legislation affects not only consumer behavior but also the fast-food industry (p. 2). Indeed, negative consumer references that may be influenced by a high-calorie menu are helping to motivate restaurant owners to offer lower-calorie items and alter portion sizes and methods of preparation, as well as include healthier dishes on their menus. As a result of the implementation of the Affordable Care Act, as Namba (2013) states, “on average, calories for fast-food chain restaurants decreased by 19 kilocalories” (p. 7). Thus, the policy approach to the prevention of obesity and fast-food addiction has proven to be effective.

Although the fast-food industry remains successful because people are attracted to a large number of its items due to various reasons such as saving time and effort, society should find ways to control the unlimited consumption of fast food in order to avoid its adverse effects on health. Ubiquitous, aggressive advertising of fast food and a lack of time to prepare healthy meals are factors that lead to the development of such diseases as obesity and fast-food addiction. Fortunately, the U.S. government has already put in motion a policy that helps to improve the situation by passing the Affordable Care Act, obliging restaurants to put calorie numbers on their menus. It seems to be the right course because if society ignores the problems caused by fast-food consumption, the situation will only worsen over time. Luckily, at the present time, not only governmental policies but also the growing healthy lifestyle trend are contributing to the reduction of the number of fast-food consumers.

Block, J. P., Condon, S. K., Kleinman, K., Mullen, J., Linakis, S., Rifas-Shiman, S., & Gillman, M. W. (2013). Consumers’ estimation of calorie content at fast food restaurants: Cross sectional observational study. BMJ, 346 , f2907.

Boyland, E. J., & Halford, J. C. (2013). Television advertising and branding. Effects on eating behaviour and food preferences in children . Appetite, 62 , 236-241.

Finkelstein, E. A., Khavjou, O. A., Thompson, H., Trogdon, J. G., Pan, L., Sherry, B., & Dietz, W. (2012). Obesity and severe obesity forecasts through 2030. American journal of preventive medicine , 42 (6), 563-570.

Garber, K. A., & Lustig, R. H. (2011). Is fast food addictive? Current drug abuse reviews, 4 (3), 146-162.

Garcia, G., Sunil, T. S., & Hinojosa, P. (2012). The fast food and obesity link: Consumption patterns and severity of obesity. Obesity surgery , 22 (5), 810-818.

Lichtenberg, A. L. (2012). A historical review of five of the top fast food restaurant chains to determine the secrets of their success (Senior thesis, Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, CA). Web.

Namba, A. (2013). Exploratory analysis of fast-food chain restaurant menus before and after implementation of local calorie-labeling policies, 2005–2011. Preventing chronic disease, 10 , 1-8.

Richardson, A. S., Boone-Heinonen, J., Popkin, B. M., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2011). Neighborhood fast food restaurants and fast food consumption: A national study. BMC Public Health, 11 (1), 1-8.

Schlosser, E. (2012). Fast food nation: The dark side of the all-American meal . Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Van der Horst, K., Brunner, T. A., & Siegrist, M. (2011). Fast food and take‐away food consumption are associated with different lifestyle characteristics. Journal of human nutrition and dietetics, 24 (6), 596-602.

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Food Addiction: How to Overcome It? Essay

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Introduction

Although malnutrition is considered to be one of the most challenging problems of humanity, one should keep in mind that its contrary – food addiction leading to obesity – is not simply overeating but rather a serious issue. A food addict is a person who tends to overconsume specific foods, especially junk food, in an addiction-like manner. Although food addiction is usually thought to be the result of insufficient willpower, it may be caused by neuroscientific processes in the human brain as well. To overcome food addiction, you should understand the cause of the problem and develop a plan of action to fight it.

The first thing to start with when tackling food addiction is, to be honest with yourself about its cause. Contemporary scientists and doctors argue that there are certain foods that cause addiction. Such a perspective is supported by a significant amount of neuroscience research, “demonstrating that the chronic consumption of energy-dense foods causes changes in the brain’s reward pathway” (Carter et al. 105).

If the problem is mainly a result of consuming foods that trigger neuroscientific processes as those of drug addicts, the wisest decision will be to cut on those products. Sweets, high-fat fried or other junk foods, and sugary soda are among the most problematic ones and are better to be avoided in large quantities. Food addiction is a common cause of obesity and diabetes; excessive weight, in turn, may affect a person’s self-esteem and social relationships. Scientists argue that “recognition of the neurobiological and cognitive changes driving addictive consumption of hyperpalatable foods will produce more effective treatment” (Carter et al. 106).

However, although taking into consideration neuroscientific processes as a cause for food addiction may be useful to develop a treatment, other factors resulting in addiction are to be taken into account as well.

If the reason for food addiction is an inner one, try to identify its roots and analyze social or personal pressures that lead to overeating. Food addicts often fail to neglect social relationships, lack occupational realization; they tend to hide the amount of consumed unhealthy food from others and eat to the point of feeling excessively full. Quite often, a reason for food addiction is difficult to detect, so it is advised to seek assistance from a psychologist.

Once the cause is identified, the next step may be to develop a plan of action – daily, weekly, or monthly. It may consist of goals and ways of achieving them; an organized schedule facilitates the process of lowering food addiction. Eating healthy food such as fruits and vegetables and spending free time actively may greatly facilitate overcoming food addiction. One way to enhance cutting on some foods may be downloading a mobile phone app to control food intake and track physical activity. The app spurs motivation and makes a person ask oneself if the satisfaction from eating some foods worth the consequences of excessive weight.

To sum up, as people all over the world are gaining access to an increasing amount of food, food addiction has become a significant problem in today’s society. Their most common reason is either a lack of willpower or neuroscientific processes such as a dopamine signal affecting human brain biochemistry. Consequently, the food addiction problem is rarely resolved on its own, and overcoming it involves cutting on foods that trigger dopamine brain response, increased physical activity, and eating healthy products.

Carter, Adrian, et al. “The Neurobiology of “Food Addiction” and Its Implications for Obesity Treatment and Policy.” Annual Review of Nutrition , vol. 36, no. 1, 2016, pp. 105–128. Web.

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What Is the Evidence for “Food Addiction?” A Systematic Review

Eliza l. gordon.

1 Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Florida, 1225 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA; ude.lfu@leiraha (A.H.A.-D.); ude.lfu@vnamuab (V.B.)

Aviva H. Ariel-Donges

Viviana bauman, lisa j. merlo.

2 Center for Addiction Research and Education, Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, 1149 Newell Drive, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; ude.lfu@olreml

The diagnostic construct of “food addiction” is a highly controversial subject. The current systematic review is the first to evaluate empirical studies examining the construct of “food addiction” in humans and animals. Studies were included if they were quantitative, peer-reviewed, and in the English language. The 52 identified studies (35 articles) were qualitatively assessed to determine the extent to which their findings indicated the following addiction characteristics in relation to food: brain reward dysfunction, preoccupation, risky use, impaired control, tolerance/withdrawal, social impairment, chronicity, and relapse. Each pre-defined criterion was supported by at least one study. Brain reward dysfunction and impaired control were supported by the largest number of studies ( n = 21 and n = 12, respectively); whereas risky use was supported by the fewest ( n = 1). Overall, findings support food addiction as a unique construct consistent with criteria for other substance use disorder diagnoses. The evidence further suggests that certain foods, particularly processed foods with added sweeteners and fats, demonstrate the greatest addictive potential. Though both behavioral and substance-related factors are implicated in the addictive process, symptoms appear to better fit criteria for substance use disorder than behavioral addiction. Future research should explore social/role impairment, preoccupation, and risky use associated with food addiction and evaluate potential interventions for prevention and treatment.

1. Introduction

The term “addiction” is commonplace in present society, despite the lack of consensus on an established clinical definition (see Table 1 for definitions set forth by various health-related professional organizations). In clinical practice, there is no official diagnosis of “addiction.” Instead, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) states that the term may be used to describe severe substance use disorders [ 1 ].

Definitions of addiction.

Criteria for substance use disorder diagnoses include 11 biopsychosocial symptoms grouped into four categories (see Table 2 ) [ 1 ]. Diagnostic criteria focus on the consequences (e.g., symptoms, distress, and impairment in daily functioning) of addictive disorders, however, research has provided insight into the actual process (e.g., the neurobiological correlates) of addiction. Some important findings focus on neurological factors related to reward and motivation, including DeltaFosB (∆FosB; a gene transcription factor), dopamine, and opioid expression [ 2 , 3 , 4 ].

Substance Use Disorder criteria, adapted from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5) [ 1 ].

Note. To meet DSM-5 criteria for a substance use disorder, clinical distress or impairment must be evidenced by two or more of the above symptoms within a 12-month period. Severity is classified as mild (2–3 symptoms), moderate (4–5 symptoms), or severe (≥6 symptoms).

Behavioral and biological indicators of addiction have also been observed in certain excessive behaviors [ 1 ], and research highlighting these similarities has sparked interest in addictive behavior more generally [ 5 ]. The proposed “behavioral addictions” reflect dependence on a behavior or feeling brought about by an action, as opposed to a substance [ 6 ]. Several studies have confirmed similarities between behavioral and substance addictions regarding ∆FosB, dopamine, and opioid expression; impaired control over the behavior; neglect of relationships and role obligations; and continued problematic behavior in the face of negative health outcomes [ 5 , 7 ]. As a result, the DSM-5 recently introduced a new diagnostic category, Non-Substance-Related Disorders, within the newly-named Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders section of the manual. This category currently includes only gambling disorder, however, several other behaviors were considered, including compulsive overeating [ 5 , 8 ], problematic sexual behavior [ 9 ], and excessive Internet gaming [ 5 , 9 ]. Although overeating was ultimately excluded from this category due to insufficient empirical evidence, discussion regarding the addictive potential of food has continued. Indeed, organizations such as the American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) have chosen to include “food addiction” in their list of possible addictive disorders [ 10 ], and a number of studies have observed clear biological and behavioral similarities between drug use and overeating (i.e., altered dopamine expression, cravings, relapse to highly palatable food) [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. In a review of food addiction studies in humans, Meule and Gearhardt [ 14 ] reported that four out of the 11 DSM-5 substance use disorder symptoms were empirically supported by studies of highly palatable food, and that the remaining seven symptoms were “plausible” based on the literature available at that time. Several additional studies on food addiction have been published since that review.

Nonetheless, there have been inconsistencies regarding the definition of food addiction. A variety of approaches have been used to measure it, such as self-report questionnaires [ 18 ]; patient self-identification [ 19 ]; and the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS), which is currently the best available measure for evaluating food addiction based upon modified DSM criteria for substance use disorders [ 20 , 21 ]. Some have erroneously conceptualized food addiction as either obesity or binge eating [ 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ], yet mounting evidence indicates that these constructs are distinct [ 26 , 27 ]. Though some individuals with obesity may display neurological and behavioral similarities to individuals addicted to drugs [ 24 ], estimates suggest that only approximately 24.9% of overweight/obese individuals report clinically-significant symptoms of food addiction and 11.1% of healthy-weight individuals also report these symptoms [ 28 ]. Similarly, while food addiction symptoms are associated with binge eating behavior and account for 6–14.8% of the unique variance in binge eating disorder [ 28 ], current estimates suggest that only approximately 56.8% of individuals with binge eating disorder report clinically significant food addiction symptoms [ 29 ]. Although there is substantial overlap between food addiction and binge eating symptoms, the two constructs are not synonymous [ 26 , 27 ].

The concept of food addiction remains controversial [ 25 , 30 , 31 ]. Some researchers question whether food or eating can be addictive if it is necessary to our survival [ 25 ], while others point out the common biological (e.g., brain reward pathways, ΔFosB expression), behavioral (e.g., relapse, using more than intended), and psychological (e.g., preoccupation, impaired control) similarities between the compulsive consumption of highly palatable foods and use of addictive drugs [ 2 , 32 , 33 ]. Nevertheless, critics and proponents alike agree that more research is needed to confirm the validity of food addiction [ 30 , 34 ]. A non-systematic review by Hone-Blanchet and Fecteau [ 31 ] comparing animal and human models of food addiction to characteristics of substance use disorder concluded that there was significant overlap between the two conditions, but that more research was needed. Extant published systematic reviews on the concept of food addiction have either conflated obesity with food addiction or excluded animal studies [ 22 , 28 , 29 ]. As such, a more recent and inclusive systematic review was needed. The present systematic review aimed to summarize the peer-reviewed empirical literature examining the evidence for food addiction in both animal and human studies. The chosen method involved assessing its association with key characteristics of addiction in relation to food: (a) neurobiological changes, (b) preoccupation with the substance, (c) impaired control, (d) social impairments, (e) risky use, (f) tolerance/withdrawal, (g) chronicity of the condition, and (h) relapse [ 1 , 10 , 17 ].

2. Materials and Methods

Data collection, review, reporting, and discussion were conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Statement [ 35 , 36 ]. The literature search was carried out in PubMed and PsychINFO databases using varying combinations of the following keywords: food addiction, addiction, process addiction, binge eating, hedonic eating, compulsive overeating, compulsive eating, eating behavior, food, eat, feeding behavior/psychology, food preferences, food habits, hyperphagia, eating disorders, obesity, overeat*. Meshterms were used in the PubMed search. Filters were used in both databases according to the study’s predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Given that the “study type” filters on PubMed only identified articles in print, a second search was done using the same search terms without filters in order to identify recent articles published online before print. Additional studies were identified through review of the references listed in the identified articles. Due to the proliferative nature of research on food addiction, two searches were done: the first was completed on 29 June 2016, and the second was completed on 8 January 2018. Protocols were followed for both searches exactly as described above, with the exception that the second search included only articles published since 30 June 2016.

Articles were included if their stated purpose was to test the validity of the food addiction construct, and if they fulfilled the following modified PICOS (Participants, Interventions, Comparisons, Outcomes, and Study Design) criteria [ 35 , 36 ]. Acceptable participants included humans or animals of any age with no specific limitations on disease or diagnosis. Only quantitative, empirical, peer-reviewed studies published in the English language were included. The American Psychological Association’s defines “quantitative” studies as those which “provide numerical representation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomenon studied followed by the application of…statistical methods” [ 37 ], (“Quantitative Study”). Therefore, studies using self-report measures that produced a numerical outcome (e.g., Likert scale, yes/no, hunger ratings) were considered quantitative. Empirical studies were defined as those “based on…systematic observation, or experiment, rather than theory or general philosophical principle” [ 37 ] (“Empirical Study”). Studies examining any type of intervention or comparison (e.g., randomized control trial, cross-sectional) within these constraints were included in order to accurately reflect the heterogeneous nature of the existing literature. Studies could be published online or in print, and no limits were set on date of publication. Finally, because not all overweight/obese individuals or individuals with eating disorders report addiction-like symptoms related to food [ 29 ], studies defining food addiction solely by weight, BMI, or eating disorder diagnosis were excluded.

Articles selected from PubMed and PsychINFO were reviewed first by title, then abstract, and finally full article for relevancy and eligibility using the inclusion criteria described above. The first author independently assessed study eligibility, and articles whose eligibility was unclear were reviewed by two experienced obesity researchers. The last included study was identified in January 2018. A flowchart for study inclusion is depicted in Figure 1 .

Study selection flow diagram, presented according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement [ 35 , 36 ].

The data extraction form used for this study was modeled after forms used in similar systematic reviews (e.g., [ 28 ]) and was modified for the current paper. The following data were extracted: author/year of publication, study type, sample characteristics, number of subjects in treatment/control groups, main independent variable(s), and main outcome variable(s). Two of the current authors assessed risk of bias on the study level using a modified combined scoring system based on those reported by Jamaty and colleagues [ 38 ] and Pursey and colleagues [ 28 ]. These scoring systems were combined in order to include relevant criteria for both animal [ 38 ] and human [ 28 ] studies. Criteria included questions about sample selection, study design, and reporting of findings. The authors gave answers of “Yes”, “No”, or “Unclear” regarding each question for every article included in the review. An answer of “non-applicable” was given for the question “Was there sufficient description of the groups?” if a study did not have multiple groups. Quality scores were obtained by summing the number of “Yes”, “No”, and “Unclear” ratings, then calculating the ratio of “Yes” ratings to the sum of the “No” and “Unclear” ratings combined. “Not applicable” ratings were not included in the calculation of the overall quality rating. Disagreements between authors were discussed until a resolution was agreed upon.

The original database search produced a total of 2421 articles, and the updated search produced 577 articles. Three additional articles describing eight studies were identified from references in other papers. After removing duplicate references and excluding articles that did not meet the predetermined inclusion criteria, a total of 35 articles and 52 studies were identified (see Figure 1 and Appendix , Table A1 ). Primary reasons for exclusion were study objective (i.e., did not aim to evaluate the validity of the food addiction construct) and study type (i.e., not a quantitative empirical study). Publishing dates of included articles ranged from 1999 to 2017. Twenty articles (comprising 22 studies) involved human participants and 15 articles (comprising 30 studies) involved animal subjects (i.e., rats, mice, and monkeys). Forty-nine studies focused on the addictive potential of certain foods, five studies focused on the addictive potential of eating patterns, and two studies focused on the addictive potential of both certain foods and eating patterns.

As seen in Appendix , Table A2 , quality scores for included articles ranged from 0.8 (lowest ratio of “Yes” ratings to “No” ratings plus “Unclear” ratings) [ 39 ] to a perfect score (all “Yes” ratings) [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. Three articles disclosed competing financial interests, including Coca-Cola [ 44 ], the International Sweeteners Association [ 44 ], sugar industry relations [ 44 ], pharmaceutical companies [ 13 , 40 ] and involvement in addiction/impulse disorder organizations [ 13 ]. Nineteen articles reported no competing interests and 13 made no statement (see Table A2 ). As competing financial interests may bias study conclusions [ 45 ], data should be objectively considered with this context in mind.

Of the 35 articles (52 studies) included in this review, 31 articles (47 studies) reported results supporting the criteria for addiction, two articles (two studies) were mixed, and two articles (three studies) reported unsupportive findings (see Appendix , Table A3 ). Results examining support for each pre-specified addiction characteristic were evaluated separately and are described below.

3.1. Neurobiological Correlates of Addiction

3.1.1. ∆fosb.

Sharma, Fernandes, and Fulton [ 46 ] showed that rats placed on a 12-week high-fat diet of primarily hydrogenated coconut oil, maltodextrin, sucrose, and casein had significantly higher ∆FosB, dopamine D2 receptor, and brain-derived neurotropic factor expression, and lower dopamine D1 receptor expression, in the NAc. These changes were observed before the onset of obesity and were linked to behaviors suggestive of anhedonia. The authors concluded that the brain changes may have put the animals at greater risk for addictive-like symptoms such as relapse. No human studies reported findings related to ∆FosB.

3.1.2. Dopamine

Colantuoni and associates [ 47 ] compared brain chemistry changes in rats with intermittent, excessive glucose intake to rats given a normal diet of chow. They found that exposure to the highly palatable food in an intermittent eating pattern caused increased activation of dopamine D1 ( p < 0.05) and μ-opioid-1 receptors ( p < 0.05), as well as decreased binding of dopamine D2 receptors, in the dorsal striatum ( p < 0.05). Adams and colleagues [ 41 ] found that rats given a high-fat/low-sucrose diet (primarily lard) also had decreased D2 receptor expression in the NAc, but those given a low-fat/high-sucrose diet did not (high fat diet: F = 11.1, p = 0.009; high sucrose diet F = 3.8, p = 0.074). Reduced D2 receptor expression ( p < 0.01) in the striatum (along with other indicators of down-regulation of reward functioning) was also observed in rats who volitionally overate highly palatable foods (bacon, sausage, cheesecake, pound cake, frosting, chocolate) in a study by Johnson and Kenny [ 48 ]. Authors of each study concluded that their results were consistent with findings in substance use disorder literature.

In humans, Davis and associates [ 49 ] found that individuals who met the YFAS cutoff suggesting clinically significant food addiction symptoms had higher multi-locus genetic profile (MLGP) scores associated with increased dopamine signaling ( p = 0.023), and that the relationship between the MLGP scores and food addiction was mediated by reward-driven eating (95% CI: 0.00–1.12). Davis, Levitan, Kaplan, Kennedy, and Carter [ 50 ] showed that an appetite suppressant that blocked dopamine functioning was not effective in adults who screened positive for food addiction on the YFAS compared with controls, suggesting altered dopamine signaling strength in adults with more food addiction symptoms similar to what is seen among adults with substance use disorders.

3.1.3. Opioid Expression

Opioid receptors were reported to play a role in food reward in rats. Le Merrer and Stephens [ 51 ] found that rats conditioned on sugar sweetened pellets no longer responded to the conditioned reward when given an opiate antagonist (naltrexone; dose effect: F 2,32 = 1.72, non-significant). Newman, Pascal, Sadeghian, and Baldo [ 52 ] showed that rats who were fed sweetened shortening daily ate significantly more standard chow than rats not fed the palatable food when given a μ-opioid receptor agonist (DAMGO), suggesting that opioid receptor activity may be associated with overeating and consumption of highly palatable foods.

As a measure of opioid function, Daubenmier and colleagues [ 53 ] analyzed the effects of an acute opioid blockade drug (naltrexone) on cortisol and nausea in overweight/obese women. They found that women who engaged in more emotional and restrained eating had greater levels of cortisol ( r = 0.37, p < 0.05), and women who engaged in binge eating had greater levels of nausea in response to the drug ( p = 0.048), suggesting that these individuals “may have a down-regulated opioidergic system” (p. 99). Cambridge and associates [ 40 ] similarly found a significant role for the μ-opioid receptor system in motivation for food reward; they observed that a μ-opioid receptor antagonist reduced motivation for, but not liking of, high calorie foods (e.g., chocolate) in people with obesity and moderate binge eating ( p < 0.05). Although the authors did not conclude that their results supported food as an addictive substance, they did indicate a role for the μ-opioid system in food-related reward.

3.1.4. Other Neurobiological Changes

In a controlled study conducted on primates, Duarte and colleagues [ 54 ] found that chocolate induced a persistent conditioned place preference response usually only seen in response to drug rewards. Monkeys who received chocolate spent more time in environments where they had previously received chocolate, whereas controls showed no place preference ( F 1,13 = 13.59, p = 0.003, η 2 p = 0.53). Conditioning persisted even after a 15-day follow-up ( F 1,13 = 4.31, p = 0.06, η 2 p = 0.26), indicating that chocolate, like drugs, can be used for this type of conditioning. In rats, Le Merrer and Stephens [ 51 ] found that an AMPA receptor antagonist blocked the conditioned response to sweetened pellets ( F 2,34 = 3.02, non-significant) in a manner comparable to drugs of abuse. Additionally, Newman and colleagues [ 52 ] suggested that gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor activity may be implicated in food addiction; they found that rats given a daily dose of sweetened shortening ate significantly more standard chow than rats not fed the palatable food when given muscimol, a GABA agonist that induces feeding ( p s < 0.01).

In a study comparing rats genetically prone to obesity against rats resistant to obesity, Mary Brown and colleagues [ 55 ] reported a significant role for the NAc glutamatergic system in driving overeating ( p s < 0.05), similar to the glutamatergic mechanisms seen in animal models of relapse to drug addictions. Additionally, Pérez-Ortiz and associates [ 56 ] found that rats fed a high-fat diet (primarily lard, casein, and sucrose), exhibited increases in potential biomarkers of addiction (fumarate hydratase, ATP synthase subunit alpha, and transketolase) in the NAc ( p < 0.05). Adams and colleagues [ 41 ], however, found that a high fat diet (primarily lard) reduced activity of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB; F 1,10 = 5.4, p = 0.042) and its activated form (pCREB; F 1,10 = 5.9, p = 0.036) in the NAc, contrary to their prediction.

In an electroencephalographic (EEG) study by Imperatori and colleagues [ 57 ], participants with three or more food addiction symptoms on the YFAS exhibited brain changes similar to those in people with addictive disorders (e.g., increased functional connectivity in fronto-parietal areas; p s < 0.05). A functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) study by Gearhardt and colleagues [ 12 ] found that YFAS symptom scores were correlated with increased activation in the amygdala, cingulate cortex, and medial orbitofrontal cortex when participants were anticipating consumption of a chocolate milkshake. When participants received the milkshake, those with higher YFAS scores had greater activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( p = 0.007) and caudate ( p = 0.004) and less activation in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex ( p = 0.009) compared to those with lower YFAS scores. Gearhardt and colleagues concluded that this pattern of increased activation in areas of the brain related to reward and decreased activation in areas related to inhibition is similar to that seen in substance dependence.

De Ridder and colleagues [ 58 ] compared resting-state EEG brain activity between (1) adults with obesity who endorsed more than three YFAS symptoms (“High YFAS”), (2) adults with obesity who endorsed less than three YFAS symptoms (“Low YFAS”), (3) adults without obesity or food addiction (“Lean controls”), and (4) adults without obesity but with alcohol use disorder (“Alcohol addiction”). Positive correlations were found between YFAS symptoms and the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) for theta ( r = 0.23, p = 0.041) and beta3 ( r = 0.22, p = 0.041) frequency bands. Increased gamma activity in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) extending to the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) was associated with increased hunger ratings in the High YFAS group only ( r = 0.72, p = 0.002), and increased alcohol craving in the Alcohol addiction group ( r = 0.72, p = 0.002), while the rACC was negatively correlated with hunger in the Low YFAS group. Conjunction analyses further revealed similarities between the High YFAS group and the Alcohol addiction group in the ACC/dmPFC and precuneus ( Z = 2.24, p = 0.013), sgACC, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and temporal lobe (fusiform/parahippocampal area) ( Z = 2.78, p = 0.003). No correlations were found between the Low YFAS and Alcohol addiction groups. The authors concluded that there were significant neurobiological similarities between persons with food addiction symptoms and alcohol dependence.

In a gustatory cue exposure trial among overweight/obese adolescents, Feldstein Ewing and associates [ 59 ] found that consumption of high-calorie beverages (Sprite, Fanta, or Coca Cola) produced brain responses (e.g., increased activation in the nucleus accumbens, cerebellum, bilateral OFC, etc.) similar to those observed in response to addictive drugs. Unlike Gearhardt and colleagues, however, they found no significant relationship between YFAS symptoms and brain response.

Finally, Franken and colleagues [ 60 ] found that, similar to patterns seen in drug addiction, individuals with more YFAS symptoms displayed more impairments in cognitive control and performance monitoring on behavioral (Flanker task; r = 0.39, p = 0.001) and neurological (EEG; p < 0.05) tests.

3.2. Preoccupation with Substance Use

Given obvious constraints, no animal studies assessed the characteristic of “preoccupation” as it relates to food addiction. However, Tuomisto and colleagues [ 61 ] found that self-identified chocolate addicts were significantly more susceptible to hunger compared to controls, possibly indicating a heightened preoccupation with food ( F 1,26 = 11.65, p < 0.005). Additionally, Merlo and colleagues [ 18 ] found that in children, food addiction symptoms (measured by the Eating Behaviors Questionnaire) were significantly associated with greater preoccupation with food ( r = 0.58, p < 0.001; measured by the Children’s Eating Attitude Test).

3.3. Impaired Control

3.3.1. substance used in larger amounts or over a longer period than intended.

Burmeister, Hinman, Koball, and Hoffmann [ 62 ] found that in a sample of treatment-seeking adults with obesity, the number of addictive-like eating symptoms endorsed on the YFAS was associated with greater self-reported difficulty controlling eating in certain situations (e.g., when nervous or in social settings; r = 0.59, p < 0.01). In their pediatric sample, Merlo and colleagues [ 18 ] found a significant positive association between the uncontrolled eating subscale on the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and symptoms of food addiction ( r = 0.60, p < 0.001) on the Eating Behaviors Questionnaire.

3.3.2. Persistent Desire or Unsuccessful Efforts to Cut Down or Control Substance Use

No studies specifically evaluated this sub-criterion.

3.3.3. Great Deal of Time Spent Obtaining, Using, or Recovering from the Effects of the Substance

Furlong and colleagues [ 42 ] randomly assigned rats to either restricted, continuous, or no access to sweetened condensed milk for five weeks. They reported that, compared to the continuous access and no access (control) conditions, rats given restricted access to sweetened condensed milk exhibited more habitual behavior and time attempting to obtain the treat (i.e., continuing to press a lever, despite the absence of its conditioned reward). Mary Brown and colleagues [ 55 ] reported that rats who became obese due to overconsumption of highly palatable food (consisting mostly of lard, casein, and sucrose) also exhibited more perseverative behaviors related to highly palatable foods by lever pressing in the absence of a reward ( t = 3.76, p = 0.006), greater motivation for the palatable food ( t = 3.755, p = 0.006), and greater number of lever presses ( t = 2.87, p = 0.007) compared to rats on the same diet who did not become obese.

3.3.4. Craving, or a Strong Urge to Use the Substance

Lenoir and associates [ 43 ] found that rats preferred saccharin over cocaine when given the choice ( p s < 0.05), and were more willing to work for saccharin in the face of increased cost ( p s < 0.05), indicating a strong desire to consume the sweetener.

Davis and colleagues [ 39 ] found that adults with obesity who met YFAS criteria for food addiction reported significantly greater food cravings ( p < 0.001), hedonic eating ( p < 0.001), and snacking on sweets ( p < 0.001). In a separate study, Davis and associates [ 49 ] reported that participants with clinically significant food addiction symptoms (based on the YFAS) had higher scores on a measure of food cravings ( F = 55.07, p < 0.001) compared to those without, and found that craving mediated the relationship between dopamine signaling and clinically significant food addiction symptoms (95% CI: 0.04–0.93), even after controlling for binge eating and emotional eating. Additionally, Davis and colleagues [ 50 ] demonstrated that individuals who met the YFAS criteria for clinically significant food addiction symptoms reported greater food cravings and appetite following a taste of their favorite palatable food (e.g., potato chips, chocolate, cookies; p < 0.001).

In a study of bariatric surgery candidates with binge eating disorder, Lent and Swencionis [ 63 ] found that food cravings were associated with higher scores on a measure of addictive personality ( r = 0.31, p = 0.005) and that addictive personality scores explained a significant amount of the variance in cravings ( R 2 = 0.10, p = 0.005). Tuomisto and colleagues [ 61 ] found that self-identified “chocolate addicts” were more subjectively aroused and reported experiencing greater cravings when presented with chocolate related cues (e.g., sight, smell, taste) than controls ( p < 0.001). Finally, Feldstein Ewing and associates [ 59 ] observed significant increases in adolescent boys’ self-reported urges to eat after tasting a sweetened beverage (e.g., Sprite, Fanta, or Coca Cola) compared to water ( t (23) = 2.20, p = 0.04).

3.4. Social Impairment

3.4.1. failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home due to recurrent substance use, 3.4.2. continued use despite social or interpersonal problems caused/exacerbated by substance.

Adams and colleagues [ 41 ] found that rats fed a calorie-restricted high-fat/low-sucrose diet began seeking sucrose rewards more impulsively, even when impulsive behavior was punished with time-out from other rats ( F 1,11 = 6.4, p = 0.028). However, rats fed the low-fat/high-sucrose diet did not show the same level of impulsive behavior ( F 1,12 = 1.2, p = 0.297). No human studies specifically evaluated this sub-criterion.

3.4.3. Reduction of Important Social, Occupational, or Recreational Activities due to Substance Use

No animal studies evaluated this sub-criterion; however, Lent and Swencionis [ 63 ] found that 60% of their sample of bariatric surgery candidates endorsed choosing to spend time eating over conducting other activities, and that this subgroup also had higher addictive personality scores ( p < 0.01). In turn, higher scores on their addictive personality measure explained a significant amount of the variance in social isolation ( R 2 = 0.28, p < 0.001).

3.5. Risky Substance Use

3.5.1. recurrent substance use in physically hazardous situations.

Johnson and Kenny [ 48 ] observed that rats given unrestricted access to a diet consisting of bacon, sausage, cheesecake, pound cake, frosting, and chocolate continued to compulsively consume these foods despite the presence of an aversive conditioned stimulus (i.e., a cue light that had previously been paired with foot shock; F 1,26 = 29.7, p < 0.001). In contrast, rats previously fed only regular chow and/or given restricted access to the high-fat/high-sugar diet significantly decreased their palatable food consumption in the presence of the aversive conditioned stimulus ( F 1,26 = 44.9, p < 0.001). No human studies evaluated this sub-criterion.

3.5.2. Continued Use Despite Knowledge of Physical or Psychological Problem Likely Caused or Exacerbated by the Substance

3.6. pharmacological criteria, 3.6.1. tolerance.

Johnson and Kenny [ 48 ] found that rats who volitionally overate highly palatable food exhibited reward dysfunction (e.g., downregulated dopamine D2 receptors, elevated reward thresholds) that worsened as the rats gained more weight ( F 2,6 = 5.2, p < 0.05).

Among bariatric surgery candidates in Lent and Swencionis’s study [ 63 ], 68.5% reported increasing quantities of food to reach satiation, and those who endorsed this symptom also had higher scores on the addictive personality measure. Additionally, Spring and associates [ 64 ] showed that among women who reported craving carbohydrates, a 100% carbohydrate sweetened beverage (including sucralose, maltodextrin, dextrose, high maltose rice syrup, etc.) significantly dispelled negative mood ( t (789) = 2.17, p = 0.03). However, this effect decreased over multiple exposures, indicating signs of tolerance among this sample ( t (95) = −2.82, p = 0.01). Finally, Markus and colleagues [ 44 ] reported that the most common foods associated with tolerance-like effects in their study were high-fat sweet foods (3.2%) and high-fat savory foods (2.9%), and that the “intensity” of tolerance was greater for these foods compared to low-fat sugary foods ( p s < 0.05). The authors did not report how “intensity” was measured.

3.6.2. Withdrawal

Mangabeira, Garcia-Mijares, and Silva [ 65 ] found that rats who preferred a sugar solution had impaired differential reinforcement of low rate performance (a measure of impulsivity) when forced into abstinence ( p < 0.001), similar to animals in withdrawal from addictive drugs. Pickering, Alsiö, Hulting, and Schiöth [ 66 ] found that when given a high-fat/high-sugar diet, obesity-prone rats exhibited withdrawal symptoms, including spending less time in the center of an open-field test (an indicator of anxiety; p < 0.05) and eating significantly less regular chow ( p < 0.05) upon removal of the high-fat/high-sugar diet. Sharma and colleagues [ 46 ] reported that upon withdrawal from their diet, mice fed high-fat food (primarily hydrogenated coconut oil, maltodextrin, sucrose, and casein) showed more signs of anxiety and increased basal cortisone levels ( p < 0.01), and the rats were more motivated for both sucrose and high-fat foods compared to rats fed a low-fat diet ( p < 0.01). However, Yakovenko, Speidel, Chapman, and Dess [ 67 ] reported that spontaneous withdrawal symptoms of rats reported in other studies (forepaw tremor, teeth chatter, and head shake) were rare in their study. While they did observe elevated startle (a symptom of ethanol withdrawal seen in the same line of rats) dependent upon the prior dose of glucose intake ( r = 0.63), it was not significantly different from controls ( p > 0.10).

Lent and Swencionis [ 63 ] found that, in their sample of bariatric surgery candidates, individuals who scored significantly higher on an addictive personality measure also reported feeling more anxious when they were not near food ( p < 0.01). Finally, Markus and associates [ 44 ] reported that among 1414 participants who reported experiencing at least one YFAS symptom in the past year, 9.5% endorsed “withdrawal-like” physiological effects in response to either high-fat savory foods (3.8%), high-fat sweet foods (2.8%), low-fat sugary foods (1.6%), or low-fat savory foods (1.3%). The self-reported “intensity” of withdrawal symptoms were significantly greater for high-fat savory and high-fat sweet foods compared to low-fat sugary foods ( p s < 0.05).

3.7. Chronicity

McGee, Amare, Bennett, and Duncan-Vaidya [ 68 ] found that three days of a binge/compensate pattern of eating sweetened vegetable shortening still had a significant impact on rats’ motivation for sucrose over one month later ( F 2,19 = 7.72, p < 0.01), suggesting long-term effects of palatable food consumption. Pickering and colleagues [ 66 ] reported that obesity-prone rats fed a high-fat/high-sugar diet consumed significantly less chow during a three-week withdrawal period from those foods ( p < 0.05), possibly suggesting long-term changes to the rats’ reward system analogous to the chronic state of dependence seen in drug addictions.

Konkolÿ Thege, Woodin, Hodgins, and Williams [ 5 ] described a longitudinal study in which they evaluated the prevalence of six potentially-addictive behaviors among 4121 Canadian adults. They found that only 6.3% of participants reported problems with excessive overeating for four consecutive years compared to 58% reporting problems for one year only. The authors concluded that excessive overeating may be more transient than drug addictions.

3.8. Relapse

Two articles by Pickering and colleagues [ 66 ] and Sharma and colleagues [ 46 ] reported that rats and mice withdrawn from a highly palatable food diet demonstrated increased motivation for sucrose, suggesting risk for relapse ( F 1,390 = 4.71, p = 0.0491 and p s < 0.01, respectively). No human studies evaluated this criterion.

3.9. Additional Observations

3.9.1. genetics.

In a genome-wide investigation of food addiction, Cornelis and associates [ 69 ] observed that food addiction scores on the modified YFAS were significantly associated with signaling in the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, which has been identified as a possible drug addiction pathway ( p = 0.02); however, other addiction-related genetic underpinnings did not overlap (e.g., genes, single-nucleotide polymorphisms) with food addiction ( p s > 0.05).

3.9.2. Substance Sensitization

Le Merrer and Stephens [ 51 ] observed that mice exposed to sweetened pellets paired with a specific context displayed signs of behavioral sensitization by showing greater progressive activity in that context compared to mice that did not have the same pairing ( p < 0.05). This activity persisted for three weeks in the absence of the palatable food and was described as being similar to those seen in models of drugs sensitization. These authors also reported that conditioned environments produced greater food consumption.

In humans, Spring and colleagues [ 64 ] observed that participants who reported craving carbohydrates endorsed increased “liking” for a pure carbohydrate beverage over time, compared to a control high-protein beverage ( t (98) = 1.98, p = 0.05), which the authors concluded suggested sensitization to carbohydrates in this sample.

3.9.3. Cross-Sensitization

Le Merrer and Stephens [ 51 ] reported that rats sensitized to palatable food had a significantly enhanced locomotor response when given cocaine and morphine ( F 1,18 = 6.18, p < 0.05), suggesting a cross-sensitization effect. However, Yakovenko and colleagues [ 67 ] failed to find evidence for a cross-sensitization effect of cookie consumption on alcohol intake among rats.

In a study on weight-loss surgery patients, Fowler, Ivezaj, and Saules [ 70 ] observed that those who reported more problems with high glycemic index and high-sugar/low-fat foods before surgery were more likely to develop a new substance use disorder post-surgery ( p s < 0.05), indicating cross-sensitization.

3.9.4. Impulsivity

Adams and colleagues [ 41 ] found that rats fed a high-fat diet showed increased impulsivity in working for a sucrose reward compared to rats fed a high-sugar diet ( F 1,11 = 6.4, p = 0.02). In humans, Davis and associates [ 39 ] reported greater impulsivity among adults with obesity who met YFAS criteria for food addiction compared to controls who did not ( p < 0.001).

3.10. Overall Addiction

Four studies reported results relevant to an overall characterization of addiction. Tuomisto and associates [ 61 ] compared self-identified “chocolate addicts” to “non-chocolate addicts” in two studies and found that exposure to chocolate cues led to affective changes (e.g., anxiety, restlessness) similar to those seen in substance addiction. Additionally, Schulte, Avena, and Gearhardt [ 13 ] evaluated whether certain foods were more likely to be associated with addictive-like eating in undergraduates and in a more diverse sample of adults recruited through Amazon MTurk, respectively. Participants in their study completed the YFAS and then were asked to complete a forced-choice task of identifying which foods were associated with addictive symptoms. The authors reported that the foods most likely to be implicated in addictive-like eating patterns were processed foods high in fat and/or refined carbohydrates. These foods, the authors stated, parallel pharmacokinetic properties of addictive drugs (e.g., highly concentrated, rapid absorption rate).

4. Discussion

The concept of food addiction has sparked much controversy among researchers. While some have questioned the validity of this construct [ 25 , 30 ], an increasing number of studies have produced evidence of biological and behavioral changes in response to highly palatable foods that parallel addiction criteria. The current study reviewed existing food addiction research and organized the findings into key diagnostic constructs: (a) neurobiological changes, (b) preoccupation with the substance, (c) impaired control, (d) social impairments, (e) risky use, (f) tolerance/withdrawal, (g) chronicity of the condition, and (h) relapse. We found significant support for the construct of food addiction in both animals and humans, with each primary criterion having support from at least one study (see Appendix , Table A3 ), though some sub-criteria have not yet been studied. Of the addiction characteristics assessed in this review, brain reward changes and impaired control had the greatest number of supportive findings (21 and 12 studies, respectively). The current review also found evidence for supplemental characteristics consistent with addiction, including genetic susceptibility, substance sensitization and cross-sensitization, and impulsivity. More research is needed to evaluate the diagnostic criteria with less empirical support, including risky use, chronicity, relapse, preoccupation, and social impairment. Only four of the 35 eligible articles reported findings contrary to the proposed criteria for addiction [ 5 , 41 , 59 , 67 ], yet two of these also included supportive findings [ 41 , 59 ]. Overall, evidence supporting the validity of food addiction significantly outweighed evidence against it.

Some have proposed that food addiction should be classified as a behavioral disorder (i.e., “eating addiction”) similar to a gambling disorder [ 71 ]. However, most research studies, including the vast majority of studies identified for this review, have conceptualized food addiction as a substance use disorder (i.e., “refined food use disorder”, “highly palatable food use disorder”, or simply “food use disorder” [ 14 , 19 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 ]. To address this question, Meule and Gearhart [ 14 ] compared diagnostic criteria for gambling disorder—the only officially recognized behavioral addiction in the DSM-5—to symptoms of food addiction and found that despite several similarities (e.g., unsuccessful efforts to cut down), food addiction symptoms more closely resembled those of a substance use disorder due to the necessary consumption of a substance (food) and the inapplicability of certain behavioral criteria (e.g., monetary loss: DSM-5 criteria 1, 6, and 5).

By definition, behavioral addictions involve dependence on a behavior, not a substance; however, addictive-like consumption of highly palatable food involves both a behavior (eating) and substance (food). Some classic substance addictions, such as tobacco use disorder, also appear to include behavioral dependencies. For example, behavior modification is typically required in treatment for tobacco use disorder due to the strong connection between the effects of the substance (tobacco) and the act of using it (e.g., smoking) [ 76 ]. Nevertheless, tobacco is the primary driver of the addiction, and it is therefore classified as a substance use disorder. In the current review, symptoms suggestive of “addiction” to highly palatable foods were often intertwined with specific eating patterns (i.e., restriction, binge eating) [ 42 , 52 , 67 ]. However, these behavioral patterns are also frequently observed among individuals with alcohol and other drug use disorders. In addition, characteristics of food addiction were found in the absence of such eating patterns (e.g., [ 48 ]) and were preceded by consumption of highly palatable foods, suggesting a profile most similar to substance addiction. In light of these findings, the results of the current review support Meule and Gearhardt’s [ 14 ] conclusion that, while food addiction involves both behavioral and substance-related symptoms, it more closely parallels criteria for substance use disorder.

Overall, the majority of the studies in the present systematic review evaluated foods with added sweeteners (e.g., sugar, saccharine), and many experiments combined sweeteners with fats such as hydrogenated oils or lard (see Appendix , Table A1 ). The current review found that the most common foods associated with addictive symptoms were those high in added fats and/or refined carbohydrates such as sugar. These findings are consistent with prior literature. Avena, Rada, and Hoebel [ 77 ] found that neural adaptations in response to sugar consumption could lead to dependence in rats, and Ifland and colleagues [ 19 ] concluded that refined foods (e.g., sodas, breakfast cereal, high-fructose corn syrup) should be considered a “classic” addictive substance. Taking it one step further, Lustig and colleagues [ 73 ] argued that sugar should be regulated as substance of abuse given the negative health outcomes common to both sugar and alcohol at the individual and societal levels (e.g., liver disease, associated medical costs). Schulte, Potenza, and Gearhardt [ 75 ] proposed that food addiction more closely resembles a substance-based addiction as opposed to a behavioral addiction due to the differential effects of certain foods types on eating behavior. Finally, Pursey and colleagues [ 34 ] reviewed the literature on food addiction and concluded that the foods most commonly associated with addictive-like symptoms in humans are those that are highly-processed, high on the glycemic index, and contain large amounts of added fats and sugar. Although there is strong support for the addictive potential of sugar in animal studies [ 77 ], data from human studies suggest that the combination of sweet and fat is more commonly associated with addictive symptoms than sugar alone [ 34 , 44 ]. More research is needed to identify the types and characteristics of food ingredients that may have addictive effects in humans.

Few studies have evaluated whether food addiction can manifest in response to consumption of unprocessed “whole foods.” Animal studies in the current review found no evidence for addictive-like symptoms to rodent chow (e.g., [ 48 ]), and human studies reported increased addictive symptoms toward refined/processed foods compared to non-processed foods [ 13 ]. Nevertheless, in a study by Schulte and colleagues [ 13 ] evaluating the addictive potential of specific foods, nuts (typically considered a whole food, without added sugars) were rated more addictive on average than granola bars (typically processed, with added sugars and fats). Furthermore, there was an isolated report describing individuals who displayed addictive-like symptoms toward carrots [ 78 ]. While highly palatable foods are associated with more addictive-like symptoms than non-processed foods, the possibility of these symptoms occurring in response to “natural” food merits further exploration.

Future research should also examine potential biological and hormonal factors that play a role in food addiction symptoms. Studies in this review found that rodents genetically prone to obesity had greater risk for developing certain food addiction symptoms (i.e., craving, impaired control) compared to obesity-resistant rodents [ 48 , 66 ]. In humans, symptoms of food addiction are more prevalent among adults in the overweight and obese BMI categories (24.9%) compared to adults in the normal BMI category (11.1%) [ 28 ]. However, a study comparing adults with overweight/obesity, found hormonal differences (e.g., amylin, prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone) between those who met criteria for food addiction and those who did not [ 79 ]. These data indicate a need to further explore the biological and hormonal factors associated with both weight and food addiction.

Finally, while multiple studies have shown that obesity, binge eating disorder, and food addiction are separate constructs [ 26 , 27 ], their distinct etiologies leave much to be clarified. Future research should continue to examine the neurological correlates and differences between obesity, eating disorders, and food addiction. Potential theoretical and clinical implications of these differences should be explored.

To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review on food addiction that was not limited to definitions based on the YFAS or body weight status. Strengths include the use of human and animal studies, rigorous methodology using PRISMA guidelines and inclusion of both animal and human studies. Limitations include that our search was limited to two electronic databases and only included studies published in English, and that animal studies limit generalizability to humans. In addition, our risk of bias assessment may have resulted in lower scores for older studies, due to changes over time in reporting standards (e.g., financial support, conflicts of interest). The study question may also have produced biased results, as researchers interested in evaluating the validity of the food addiction construct may be more inclined (consciously or not) to observe and report confirmatory results. When combined with publication bias, this may have resulted in an underrepresentation of studies producing contrary or null findings. Finally, our search criteria likely excluded evidence for certain characteristics of addiction (e.g., social impairment, risky use, preoccupation) because these constructs are relatively difficult to measure quantitatively. However, these symptoms have been reported in qualitative studies (e.g., [ 80 ]) and are plausible when considering, for example, individuals who continue to overeat post-bariatric surgery or despite exacerbated chronic medical conditions such as diabetes or heart disease [ 14 , 26 ]. As recommended by Burrows and colleagues [ 26 ], future reviews on food addiction could benefit from including both quantitative and qualitative studies.

5. Conclusions

The results of the current systematic review generally support the validity of food addiction as a diagnostic construct, particularly as it relates to foods high in added sweeteners and refined ingredients. The majority of studies in the current review reported evidence for symptoms related to neurological changes and impaired control, with fewer studies evaluating preoccupation, chronicity, relapse, social impairment, and risky use. Behavioral and substance-related aspects of food addiction appear to be intertwined, but we suggest that the substance (highly-palatable food) component may be more salient to the diagnostic classification of this phenomenon than the behavior (eating). We propose that the food addiction construct merits serious attention in regard to its presentation, prevention, and treatment in humans.

Acknowledgments

Publication of this article was funded in part by the University of Florida Open Access Publishing Fund.

Characteristics of included studies.

Risk of bias assessment of included studies.

N = No, Y = Yes, UC = Unclear, N/A = Non-Applicable.

Evidence for and against addiction criteria.

Author Contributions

The review protocol was developed by Eliza L. Gordon. Retrieval and screening of articles for inclusion was undertaken by Eliza L. Gordon with assistance from Viviana Bauman. The risk of bias assessment was undertaken by Eliza L. Gordon and Viviana Bauman. Significant revisions were completed by Lisa J. Merlo. Additional revisions were provided by Aviva H. Ariel-Donges and Viviana Bauman. All authors contributed content to and approved the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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100+ Informative Essay Topics to Spice Up Your Next Essay

Table of Contents

Writing great informative essays begins with finding appropriate informative essay topics . However, landing on ideal topics for informative essays can sometimes pose a few challenges. The good news is that you don’t need to scratch your head to find the best informative topics to write about . 

Our team selected the best informational writing ideas to inspire you across different niches. Keep reading our inspiring, informative essay topic ideas to kick-start your next assignment. 

What Is an Informative Essay ? 

Let’s define an informative paper before looking at the sample informative essay topics we’ve lined up for you. In short, an informative essay is a form of academic writing that primarily seeks to impart knowledge instead of stirring up opinions. This writing genre cuts across different subjects. 

An informative paper stands out because it’s adaptable and can accommodate various writing styles. For instance, you can use descriptive, narrative, and comparative approaches to write an informative paper.

Also, this type of assignment requires heavy research. Writing this essay is like an academic exploration that requires you to mine insightful details to enhance readers’ understanding of a specific subject. A good informative assignment goes beyond a topic’s broadness and delves into the presenting information objectively to ensure its reliability and accuracy. 

This type of writing is critical because it empowers readers with factual and unbiased information. It also helps inquisitive minds broaden their knowledge scope. Thus, it’s a great invitation for any reader who is seeking to get more insight into new intellectual spheres. 

How to Choose Informative Essay Topics

How you choose topics for informative essays for your assignments determines whether your paper will be of high quality or not. This section provides tips to help you select the best informative essay topics for your future assignments. 

Consider Your Interests

You must identify your personal interests before selecting good informative essay topics . Begin by brainstorming topics you are passionate about. Consider your desires and hobbies before choosing a topic related to these interests. 

Mind Your Readers

You should also consider your audience when choosing good topics for informative essays . Ensure that your readers are also interested in your topics enough to want to read them. Otherwise, you could reduce your essay’s impact levels if your readers don’t find anything relevant in it.  

Research Your Topic

After narrowing down to a few potential informative essay topics , research these shortlisted ideas to ensure they have enough information to inform your readers.

Narrow Down Your Topic

After identifying several topics, select the one you find the most interesting and relevant to your essay. Consider your assignment’s scope when choosing the final title to ensure it isn’t too narrow or wide.

Select an Appropriate Tone

Lastly, consider the most appropriate tone because some informative essay topics are suitable for a more professional tone, while others are for a casual, funny approach.

Our Comprehensive List of Informative Essay Topics

Do you want the best informative essay topics to inspire your next informative paper? No need to look further than these model informational writing ideas we selected for you. Below is our comprehensive list of topics for informative essays covering different subjects.

Top Informative Essay Topics for Middle School

Your search for the best informational writing ideas ends here. Below are good informative essay topics to inspire you.

• Discuss the merit of vegetarianism in modern society. 
• Discuss the causes of domestic violence.
• Explore various mental disorders among the youth.
• How does unemployment affect the youth?
• What causes drug addiction among teenagers?
• Explore the advantages and long-term disadvantages of plastic surgery.
• Discuss the legality and morality of organ donation.
• How does bullying affect a child’s mental health?
• Discuss the benefits of recycling.
• The role of nutrition in promoting physical and mental health.

Hot Informative Essay Topics for College

You shouldn’t struggle to find the best topics for informative essays when our list of good informative essay topics can do the trick. Read on.

• How does genetics determine human behavior?
• Discuss the connection between education and income inequality.
• How does technology transform healthcare?
• Explore the long-term effects of consuming fast food on health.
• Discuss various herbal medicines and their efficacy in promoting good health.
• Explore the hidden cons of artificial intelligence.
• Discuss the causes of homelessness.
• Ways to improve gender equality in the workplace.
• Strategies to help college students manage their time wisely.
• Discuss the impact of social media on political choices.

10 Easy Informative Essay Topics

Finding informational topics to write about is easy when you allow these good informative essay topics to inspire you. Read on.

• How does social media affect society?
• The pros and cons of online shopping.
• How does air pollution affect respiratory health?
• Discuss the effectiveness of online education.
• Exploring the fallacy of evolution.
• Discuss different types of natural disasters and their prevention.
• Ways to save energy at home.
• Discuss the differences between traditional and modern medicines.
• Explore how the internet has impacted communication.
• The role of technology in conserving the environment.

The Most Interesting Informative Essay Topics

Searching for interesting informative essay topics should be fun. Get inspiration from our list of informative essay topics below to find the best informational topics to write about .

• Discuss the impact of artificial intelligence on small enterprises.
• Explore the hidden cons of genetically modified foods.
• Discuss the future of AI in the medical field.
• Explore various types of renewable energy sources.
• Discuss how virtual reality works and its applications.
• Explore the importance of animation in modern media.
• What is the role of technology in promoting wildlife conservation?
• Discuss the causes of gender inequality in the workplace.
• Explain the effects of social media on mental health.
• Discuss the moral implications of animal testing. 

Top Fun Informative Essay Topics

Do you like to infuse fun into your writing but don’t have funny, informative writing topics to inspire you? Here are hot informative essay topic ideas to end your search for informative essay topics .

• The weirdest laws in your country.
• The most unusual uses for ordinary household items.
• Understanding the science behind pranks.
• The pain of struggling to remember names.
• How is successful music made?
• Why do musicians break their guitars on stage?
• Why do musicians fall while performing on stage?
• The origin of laughter.
• The most unconventional uses for glue.
• Clever ways to get out of an awkward conversation.

10 Controversial Informative Essay Topics

Do you want informative essay topics that will help you stir up controversy? Don’t worry because our sample informative writing topics can inspire your quest. Here are inspiring topics for an informative essay . 

• Explore the ethical implications of genetic engineering in humans.
• The real hidden motive behind mandatory vaccination.
• The negative impact of artificial intelligence on employment.
• The cons of legalizing recreational drugs.
• Gun control and its impact on safety.
• Assisted suicide amounts to aiding legalized murder.
• Discuss the moral implications of animal testing.
• The death penalty is still a justifiable punishment.
• Is internet censorship equal to restricting free speech?
• The government shouldn’t regulate social media.

Top Persuasive Informative Essay Topics

Finding ideal informative essay topics is easy with sample topics for an informative essay . Below are informative essay ideas to inspire your journey. 

• How is nutrition connected to mental health?
• Ways teenagers can navigate mental health challenges in high school
• Strategies for combating stress in the workplace.
• How does a balanced diet affect overall health?
• Exploring the benefits of intermittent fasting on overall health.
• Explain composting and its advantages.
• Discuss natural ways to maintain healthy skin.
• How does regular exercise affect mental and physical health?
• The connection between sleep patterns and overall health.
• Discuss online privacy and its importance.

10 Unique Informative Essay Topics  

Your search for informative essay topics ends faster if you have great sample topics for an informative essay to reference. Here are great informative essay ideas to inspire you.

• Strategies for combating cybercrime.
• Discuss the effects of social media on mental health.
• The impact of climate change on food security.
• The effects of technological evolution.
• The drawbacks of online learning.
• Discuss the causes of income inequality.
• Ways automation can ease unemployment.
• The effects of political policies on the economy.
• The effects of unregulated carbon emissions.
• Discuss the drawbacks of nuclear energy.

Let’s Help You Do Your Informative Paper Today

There you go with the best informational essay topics to inspire your future assignments. The ball is in your court to use these sample topics for an informative essay . If you need any assistance other than informative essay topics , our lines are open. Contact us today for any further help you might need with your classwork.

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January 31, 1990: McDonald's Opens in the Soviet Union

By nick keppler | jan 31, 2016.

The Soviet Union formally dissolved on December 26, 1991, but it was on January 31, 1990 that the Bolshevik dream died in all practicality. On that day, a McDonald's opened in Moscow.

The American fast food giant had petitioned the Communist Party to open a restaurant and finally received a “ da ” in 1988. The Moscow outlet was no ordinary Mickey D’s. It held 700 seats inside and another 200 outside and rang out customers on 27 cash registers, an appropriate super-sizing for a city of that magnitude and a rare ambassador of American consumerism. (It was the only fast food restaurant in Russia at the time.)

On the first day, the world saw that there was a demand. More than 5000 Russians lined up in Pushkinskaya Square before it opened. 30,000 customers passed through the doors on that day, setting a record for the number of patrons served by a McDonald's in a single day.

Francis X. Clines of The New York Times interviewed a pipe factory worker  who said he forked over four days’ wages for a Big Mac, cheeseburger, apple pie, and two milkshakes. Customers were reportedly impressed by American customer service’s culture of politeness, a sharp contrast to Soviet stolidness.

“There is a lesson to be drawn from this for the country,'' teacher Tatyana Podlesnaya told Clines in 1990. “What is killing us is that the average worker does not know how to work and so does not want to. Our enthusiasm has disappeared. But here my meal turned out to be just a supplement to the sincere smiles of the workers.”

The Soviet Union may have fallen, but the Moscow McDonald's continues to be subjected to politics. In 2014, it was closed for “health and safety violations,” though many suspected retaliation over the United States’ sanctions against Russia over the Kremlin’s actions in the Ukraine.

As of late 2015, McDonald's had 492 locations in Russia.

Banner images via YouTube .

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A Street Brawl, a Stabbing Spree and a New York Block No One Can Fix

In the East Village, amid buzzy restaurants and high-end real estate, a section of 14th Street that has long been troubled has spiraled downward in recent years.

By Andy Newman and Chelsia Rose Marcius

On the first sweltering Sunday of the summer, East 14th Street erupted.

An aborted drug deal turned into a brawl with a glass lamp used as a weapon. An assailant in a homemade superhero cape pulled out a knife and started slashing. Three people were stabbed, one fatally.

To the Trader Joe’s shoppers who dropped their groceries and fled in horror, the violence that unfolded along a busy commercial strip in the East Village on June 23 was as surreal and random as it was terrifying.

But East 14th Street also embodies New York City’s struggles with a web of interconnected ills that have defied attempts to rein them in and have flared since the pandemic in parts of Manhattan: homelessness and mental illness, addiction and rampant shoplifting and seesaw battles for control of public space.

Along the stretch by First Avenue, even as the surrounding neighborhood grows shinier and blander and crime declines overall, there is a consensus that the forces of chaos have lately gained the upper hand.

It has been “like a game of Whac-a-Mole,” said City Councilman Keith Powers, whose district borders the stabbing site. “We have to show people that we can govern a block that is out of control.”

An angry letter he wrote in 2021 to then-Mayor Bill de Blasio citing “homeless encampments, illegal vending, obstructed sidewalks and unsanitary conditions” could have been written yesterday.

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