the american revolutionary war essay

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Setting the stage: The two armies

• Conflict begins in Massachusetts
• Paul Revere’s ride and the Battles of Lexington and Concord
• The Siege of Boston and the Battle of Bunker Hill
• Washington takes command
• The battle for New York
• A British general surrenders, and the French prepare for war
• After a hungry winter at Valley Forge
• Setbacks in the North
• Final campaigns in the South and the surrender of Cornwallis
• Early engagements and privateers
• French intervention and the decisive action at Virginia Capes
• The end of the war and the terms of the Peace of Paris (1783)
• How did the American colonies win the war?

What was the American Revolution?

How did the american revolution begin, what were the major causes of the american revolution, which countries fought on the side of the colonies during the american revolution, how was the american revolution a civil war.

American Revolution

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• Table Of Contents

The American Revolution —also called the U.S. War of Independence—was the insurrection fought between 1775 and 1783 through which 13 of Great Britain ’s North American colonies threw off British rule to establish the sovereign United States of America, founded with the Declaration of Independence in 1776. British attempts to assert greater control over colonial affairs after a long period of salutary neglect , including the imposition of unpopular taxes, had contributed to growing estrangement between the crown and a large and influential segment of colonists who ultimately saw armed rebellion as their only recourse.

On the ground, fighting in the American Revolution began with the skirmishes between British regulars and American provincials on April 19, 1775 , first at Lexington , where a British force of 700 faced 77 local minutemen , and then at Concord , where an American counterforce of 320 to 400 sent the British scurrying. The British had come to Concord to seize the military stores of the colonists, who had been forewarned of the raid through efficient lines of communication—including the ride of Paul Revere , which is celebrated with poetic license in Longfellow ’s “Paul Revere’s Ride” (1861).  

The American Revolution was principally caused by colonial opposition to British attempts to impose greater control over the colonies and to make them repay the crown for its defense of them during the French and Indian War (1754–63). Britain did this primarily by imposing a series of deeply unpopular laws and taxes, including the Sugar Act (1764), the Stamp Act (1765), and the so-called Intolerable Acts (1774).

Until early in 1778, the American Revolution was a civil war within the British Empire , but it became an international war as France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) joined the colonies against Britain. The Netherlands , which was engaged in its own war with Britain, provided financial support for the Americans as well as official recognition of their independence. The French navy in particular played a key role in bringing about the British surrender at Yorktown , which effectively ended the war.

In the early stages of the rebellion by the American colonists, most of them still saw themselves as English subjects who were being denied their rights as such. “Taxation without representation is tyranny,” James Otis reportedly said in protest of the lack of colonial representation in Parliament . What made the American Revolution look most like a civil war , though, was the reality that about one-third of the colonists, known as loyalists (or Tories), continued to support and fought on the side of the crown.

The American Revolution was an insurrection carried out by 13 of Great Britain ’s North American colonies that began in 1775 and ended with a peace treaty in 1783. The colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America . The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and a large and influential segment of its North American colonies that was caused by British attempts to assert greater control over colonial affairs after having long adhered to a policy of salutary neglect .

Until early in 1778 the conflict was a civil war within the British Empire , but afterward it became an international war as France (in 1778) and Spain (in 1779) joined the colonies against Britain . Meanwhile, the Netherlands , which provided both official recognition of the United States and financial support for it, was engaged in its own war against Britain ( see Anglo-Dutch Wars ). From the beginning, sea power was vital in determining the course of the war, lending to British strategy a flexibility that helped compensate for the comparatively small numbers of troops sent to America and ultimately enabling the French to help bring about the final British surrender at Yorktown in 1781.

The American colonies fought the war on land with essentially two types of organization: the Continental (national) Army and the state militias . The total number of the former provided by quotas from the states throughout the conflict was 231,771 soldiers, and the militias totaled 164,087. At any given time, however, the American forces seldom numbered over 20,000; in 1781 there were only about 29,000 insurgents under arms throughout the country. The war was therefore one fought by small field armies. Militias, poorly disciplined and with elected officers, were summoned for periods usually not exceeding three months. The terms of Continental Army service were only gradually increased from one to three years, and not even bounties and the offer of land kept the army up to strength. Reasons for the difficulty in maintaining an adequate Continental force included the colonists’ traditional antipathy toward regular armies, the objections of farmers to being away from their fields, the competition of the states with the Continental Congress to keep men in the militia , and the wretched and uncertain pay in a period of inflation .

By contrast, the British army was a reliable steady force of professionals. Since it numbered only about 42,000, heavy recruiting programs were introduced. Many of the enlisted men were farm boys, as were most of the Americans, while others came from cities where they had been unable to find work. Still others joined the army to escape fines or imprisonment. The great majority became efficient soldiers as a result of sound training and ferocious discipline . The officers were drawn largely from the gentry and the aristocracy and obtained their commissions and promotions by purchase. Though they received no formal training, they were not so dependent on a book knowledge of military tactics as were many of the Americans. British generals, however, tended toward a lack of imagination and initiative , while those who demonstrated such qualities often were rash.

Because troops were few and conscription unknown, the British government, following a traditional policy, purchased about 30,000 troops from various German princes. The Lensgreve (landgrave) of Hesse furnished approximately three-fifths of that total. Few acts by the crown roused so much antagonism in America as that use of foreign mercenaries .

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American Revolution

The Revolutionary War waged by the American colonies against Britain influenced political ideas and revolutions around the globe, as a small fledgling nation won its freedom from the greatest military force of its time.

Revolutionary War

The Revolutionary War (1775‑1783) arose from growing tensions between residents of Great Britain’s 13 North American colonies and the colonial government. The American colonists, led by General George Washington, won political independence and eventually formed the United States of America.

Battles of Lexington and Concord

Lead‑Up to the Battles of Lexington and Concord Starting in 1764, Great Britain enacted a series of measures aimed at raising revenue from its 13 American colonies. Many of those measures, including the Sugar Act, Stamp Act and Townshend Acts, generated fierce resentment among the colonists, who protested against “taxation without representation.” Boston, the site […]

Dunmore’s Proclamation

Loyalist Governor Sought to Expand His Troops The proclamation was months in the making, as Dunmore was in a vulnerable position as throngs of rebels filled the Virginia capital of Williamsburg, prompting the loyalist governor to depart for Norfolk. Worsening matters for him was that many of his forces had deserted him, leaving him with […]

Continental Congress

Britain and the Imperial Crises  Throughout most of colonial history, the British Crown was the only political institution that united the American colonies. The Imperial Crises of the 1760s and 1770s, found England saddled with crippling debt, incurred in large part by wars such as the French and Indian War. The British government responded by […]

Global Impact of the American Revolution

The American Revolution influenced political ideals and revolutions across the globe.

American Revolution History

Did you know that Paul Revere didn’t ride alone, and there were women on the Revolutionary War battlefields? Find out more about the war’s lesser‑known patriots.

Boston Massacre Sparks a Revolution

The shooting of several men by British soldiers in 1770 inflames passions in the colonies.

The Tea Act of 1773, an act of Great Britain’s Parliament, was the catalyst for some of the most important moments of the lead‑up to the Revolutionary War.

7 Events That Enraged Colonists and Led to the American Revolution

Colonists didn’t just take up arms against the British out of the blue. A series of events escalated tensions that culminated in America’s war for independence.

The Declaration of Independence Was Also a List of Grievances

The document was designed to prove to the world (especially France) that the colonists were right to defy King George III’s rule.

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While the British were often better equipped and trained, these events proved critical in ultimately securing Americans’ victory in the war.

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Congress issues a “declaration on the causes and necessity of taking up arms”.

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The American Revolutionary War, Essay Example

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The American Revolutionary War, also referred to as the American War of Independence, was commenced by the thirteen American protectorates’ delegates in opposition to Great Britain. The thirteen colonies objected to the congress’s taxation guidelines and the absence of colonial representatives. The conflicts between expatriate militiamen and British multitudes started in April 1775 in Lexington. Before beginning the preceding summer, the protesters had instigated an all-out war to gain their liberation. The French offered their support to the Continental militia and compelled the British to capitulate in 1781 at Yorktown, Virginia. Although the Americans successfully achieved their liberation, the War did not officially conclude till 1783. The War was deemed an internal battle within the Great Britain Empire until 1778, after which it advanced to a global war and involved other nations[1]. The initial objective of the American colonists was to gain control of their affairs, particularly tax regulations. The Britain Empire had the most control over the thirteen colonies’ affairs until 1776 when the American colonies attained independence[2]. However, the War lasted until 1783 and turned out with British multitudes losing influence on the colonies due to their incompetence. This paper looks at the reasons as to why the American War of Independence turned out the way it did.

The American colonies believed that the British administration’s role was to safeguard their liberties and freedoms. However, after the Indian and French War, the colonists began experiencing several occasions of violation of their sovereignty and privileges by the British government. The lack of colonist representatives within the parliament made them believe that they were not eligible for taxation. This was because British citizens were granted the liberty to choose their parliamentary representatives who had the power to vote on suggested taxes. The revolution’s progression resulted in a government’s formation by the Americans founded on the Confederation Articles’ provisions, which received ratification in 1781. The formulated government provided for individual states’ creation since most Americans did not believe in a robust centralized authority as they were fighting for liberation from Great Britain. The notion established by this provision was to retain power and prevent their subjection to effective controls separate from their states. However, this governmental regime proved to be incompetent and resulted in the Constitutional Convention in 1787 in Philadelphia.

During the onset of the War, the British had more militiamen in their troops. The armed forces’ growth was slow initially. After the Prime Minister, Lord North, received information on French troops’ augmentation, more individuals were recruited and added to existing units. However, the effort made by the British military changed drastically after the French involvement in the War[3]. A common belief on why Britain lost to the American colonies is due to their overconfidence and arrogance. However, the British army knew how tough it would be to conquer the rebellion. They had no particular hope of overcoming America due to the territory’s largeness and the meager nature of attainable resources. Given this, they established a tactic that they anticipated would produce disproportionate outcomes due to diligent efforts. This plan was referred to as the Hudson strategy since it integrated activities across the Hudson River, which runs up to Canada from New York. The British army anticipated to separate New England rebels from the southern and Middle colonies that were moderate. Britain was of the view that such isolation would strangle the American rebels’ right to submission[4]. The main setback was the poor execution of the plan and not the strategy itself. The outstanding leadership skills portrayed by George Washington and the British leader’s strategic errors promoted the conquest of the American colonies.

The British tactic aimed at destroying the Northern rebellion, and they came close to defeating the Continental militiamen several times. However, the triumphs at Princeton and Trenton in 1776 and the beginning of 1777 reestablished patriotic expectations. Further, the Saratoga triumph, which stopped the British from advancing from Canada, resulted in a French intervention in the colonies’ support[5]. The beginning of the War saw the absence of an expert army for the American colonies. The militiamen were casually armed, underwent slight training, and lacked uniforms. The militia units occasionally served and did not go through adequate training nor learn the discipline expected from skilled soldiers. Furthermore, native militias were hesitant to leave their homes, thus making them unreachable for comprehensive operations. The continental army endured drastically due to the absence of efficient training schedules and inexperienced sergeants and officers.

The British army had successfully operated in America before the Revolutionary War. It was tempting for the British to assume that similar logistics would apply during the American Revolution. There were differences in the British structure of logistical management[6]. The logistics during the eighteenth century were accountable to several executive sectors, including the Navy Board, the War Office, and the Board of Ordnance. However, the most considerable portion of accountability rested on the treasury. The revolution onset collapsed this system drastically. An example of patriotic boards’ action was cutting off the provisions intended for the Boston army. This significantly impacted their involvement in the War. The situation made it necessary for the British military to seek Europe’s assistance since preserving massive armed forces over great distances was largely difficult. It would take three months for ships to convey across the Atlantic Ocean; thus, briefings emanating from London were mostly nonoperational when they arrived. Before the War, American colonies were autonomous political and socio-economic entities and lacked a distinct region of definitive strategic significance. This illustrates that a city’s collapse in America did not stop wars all the more so after the forfeiture of main commune areas such as New York, Charleston, and Philadelphia.

The British influence relied on the Noble Navy, whose supremacy allowed for their resupply of expeditionary powers while averting admittance to adversary ports. However, most of the American populace was agricultural, received France’s support, and barricade runners grounded within the Dutch Caribbean, hence protecting their economy. The American colonies’ terrestrial extent and inadequate human resources indicated the British incompetence to concurrently carry out military processes and inhabit the region while lacking local maintenance. The campaign held in 1775 portrayed how Britain overrated their troops’ capabilities and undervalued the colonial militiamen, making it necessary to reassess their strategies and tactics. However, it guaranteed the Patriots an opportunity to undertake resourcefulness, which led to the rapid loss of British influence over most colonies.

Several intercontinental contexts of the American Revolution contributed to its outcomes. The first context was Britain’s political agenda[7]. The British avoided the intervention of foreign states during the War since it would lower their chances of conquering the battle. They isolated themselves from other allies since they could not afford to reimburse them[8]. Additionally, Britain was becoming extremely powerful and failed to locate partners who would threaten the Spanish or French Home Front. The second aspect was France’s plan to reduce British influence and avenge them. The French also offered their support to the American colonies in numerous ways. They provided material backing in May 1776, established a treaty of Commerce and Amity in February 1778, which resulted in recognition and trade, and formed an alliance treaty in 1778 for a military agreement[9]. There was martial intervention between the French and American colonies. The third international aspect of the War was Spain’s plan, which integrated numerous tactics. Their main objectives were to bring back Gibraltar and lower British influence and authority. Spain formed a military intervention in 1779 and joined the War, not as America’s allies, but France’s supporters.

The fourth aspect was the circumstances in Holland. The Anglo-Dutch associations turned sour as the Dutch were not in support of Britain due to their trade relations with France and America. This resulted in War raging between Britain and Holland. The British anticipated doing away with Holland’s support to the French and the rebels, which was unsuccessful[10]. The enlightenment notions also promoted the turn of events during the War. The enlightenment was a scientific and cultural movement initiated in Europe that emphasized aspects of rationality and reason over misconception. Thomas Hobbes, an English theorist, developed the social contract idea. Additionally, John Locke, another theorist, established that individuals have the liberty to the preservation of life, property, and other additional attributes from the governing administration. These notions influenced the American Revolution’s outcomes as the colonists were dedicated to achieving the right to liberty, life, and the search for contentment.

The primary revolution outcome was the liberty of the thirteen once British protectorates in North America. Additionally, the revolution served as a philosophical refinement of monarchists in the thirteen former British protectorates. Most of these royalists were forced to move to Canada after the War, and among them were several slaves who fought as British allies in the War. The Revolutionary War had several consequences, including the death of approximately 7,200 Americans due to the War. An additional 10,000 succumbed to disease and similar exposure while roughly 8,500 perished in the British jails[11]. Another consequence was the escape of some slaves in Georgia and South Carolina. The nations also implemented transcribed constitutions that ensured religious liberty, heightened the powers and form of the legislature, transformed inheritance regulations, and advanced the tax system.

[1] Hoffman, Ronald, and Peter J Albert. 1981. “France and the American Revolution Seen as Tragedy”. In Diplomacy And Revolution , 73-105. Charlottesville: Published for the United States Capitol Historical Society by the University Press of Virginia.

[2] Spring, Matthew H. 2014. “The Army’s Task”. In With Zeal And With Bayonets Only, 3-23. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

[3] Resch, John, and Walter Sargent. 2007. “Incompatible Allies”. In  War & Society In The American Revolution , 191-214. Northern Illinois University Press.

[4] Moyer, Paul, History 309. “The International Dimensions Of The Revolutionary War”. Presentation.

[5] Resch, John, and Walter Sargent. 2007. “Incompatible Allies”. In  War & Society In The American Revolution , 191-214. Northern Illinois University Press.

[6] Bowler, Arthur. n.d. “Logistics and Operations in the American Revolution”. In Logistics And The Failure Of The British Army In America, 1775-1783, 55-71.

[7] Moyer, Paul, History 309. “The International Dimensions Of The Revolutionary War”. Presentation.

[8] Resch, John, and Walter Sargent. 2007. “Incompatible Allies”. In  War & Society In The American Revolution , 191-214. Northern Illinois University Press.

[9] Tiedemann, Joseph S, Eugene R Fingerhut, and Robert W Venables. 2009. “Loyalty is Now Bleeding in New Jersey, Motivations and Mentalities of the Disaffected”. In The Other Loyalists , 45-77. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

[10] Hoffman, Ronald, and Peter J Albert. 1981. “France and the American Revolution Seen as Tragedy”. In Diplomacy And Revolution , 73-105. Charlottesville: Published for the United States Capitol Historical Society by the University Press of Virginia.

[11] Spring, Matthew H. 2014. “The Army’s Task”. In With Zeal And With Bayonets Only, 3-23. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

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Collection George Washington Papers

The american revolution.

A timeline of George Washington's military and political career during the American Revolution, 1774-1783.

1774 | 1775 | 1776 | 1777 | 1778 | 1779 | 1780 | 1781 | 1782 | 1783

July 6-18, 1774

Attends meetings in Alexandria, Virginia, which address the growing conflict between the Colonies and Parliament. Washington co-authors with George Mason the Fairfax County Resolves, which protest the British "Intolerable Acts"--punitive legislation passed by the British in the wake of the December 16th, 1773, Boston Tea Party. The Fairfax Resolves call for non-importation of British goods, support for Boston, and the meeting of a Continental Congress.

July 18, 1774

The Resolves are presented to the public at the Fairfax County Courthouse. Fairfax Resolves

September 5 - October 26, 1774

The First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia. Washington serves as a delegate from Virginia.

October 9, 1774

While attending the First Continental Congress, Washington responds to a letter from Captain Robert Mackenzie, then in Boston. Mackenzie, a fellow Virginia officer, criticizes the behavior of the city's rebellious inhabitants. Washington sharply disagrees and defends the actions of Boston's patriots. Yet, like many members of Congress who still hope for reconciliation, Washington writes that no "thinking man in all North America," wishes "to set up for independency." George Washington to Robert Mackenzie, October 9, 1774

April 19, 1775

The battles of Lexington and Concord.

Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain Boys, and Benedict Arnold and the Massachusetts and Connecticut militia, take Fort Ticonderoga on the western shore of Lake Champlain, capturing its garrison and munitions.

May 10, 1775

The Second Continental Congress convenes. Washington attends as a delegate from Virginia.

May 18, 1775

Congress learns of the capture of Fort Ticonderoga and that military reinforcements from Britain are on their way to North America.

May 25, 1775

British generals William Howe, Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne arrive in Boston with reinforcements for military commander Thomas Gage. July 12, Howe's brother Admiral Richard Howe will arrive in North America with a large fleet of warships.

May 26, 1775

Congress resolves to begin preparations for military defense but also sends a petition of reconciliation, the "Olive Branch Petition," to King George III.

June 12, 1775

British General Thomas Gage declares Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion. He offers amnesty for all who lay down their arms--except for Samuel Adams and John Hancock.

June 14, 1775

Debate begins in Congress on the appointment of a commander in chief of Continental forces. John Hancock expects to be nominated but is disappointed when his fellow Massachusetts delegate, John Adams, suggests George Washington instead as a commander around whom all the colonies might unite. June 15, Washington is appointed commander in chief of the Continental Army. The forces from several colonies gathered in Cambridge and Boston become the founding core of that army.

June 16, 1775

Washington makes his acceptance speech in Congress. As a gesture of civic virtue, he declines a salary but requests that Congress pay his expenses at the close of the war. On July 1, 1783, Washington submits to the Continental Board of Treasury his expense account. George Washington's Revolutionary War Expense Account

June 17, 1775

The battle of Bunker or Breeds Hill.

June 27, 1775

Congress establishes the northern army under the command of Major General Philip Schuyler, and to prevent attacks from the north, begins planning a campaign against the British in Canada.

July 3, 1775

Washington assumes command of the main American army in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where it has been laying siege to British-occupied Boston.

July 4, 1775

Washington issues general orders to the army, announcing that they and those who enlist "are now Troops of the United Provinces of North America," and expressing hope "that all Distinctions of Colonies will be laid aside; so that one and the same Spirit may animate the whole, and the only Contest be, who shall render, on this great and trying occasion, the most essential service to the Great and common cause in which we are all engaged." General Orders, July 4, 1775

July 6, 1775

Congress approves and arranges for publication of A Declaration by the Representatives of the United Colonies of North America.... , written by Thomas Jefferson and John Dickinson. Unlike Jefferson's Declaration of Independence of a year later, this document blames Parliament primarily and King George III secondarily for the Colonies' grievances.

July 12, 1775

Congress establishes commissions on Indian relations for the north, middle, and southern regions of the Colonies.

July 31, 1775

Congress rejects a proposal for reconciliation from the North Ministry. The proposal is sent to prominent private individuals instead of to Congress and falls short of independence.

August 1775

Washington establishes a naval force to battle the British off the New England coast and to prey on British supply ships.

August 23, 1775

King George III declares all the Colonies to be in a state of rebellion.

September 6, 1775

Washington's final draft of his "Address to the Inhabitants of Canada" calls for their support in the war for independence. Benedict Arnold will carry the Address on his march through the Maine wilderness to take Quebec. On the same day, Washington calls for volunteers from among his own army to accompany Benedict Arnold and his Virginia and Pennsylvania militia. Address to the Inhabitants of Canada, September 6, 1775 | George Washington's Revolutionary War Expense Account: September 28, 1775 , expenses for printing copies of the "Address" by Ebenezer Gray

September 28, 1775

Washington writes the Massachusetts General Court, introducing an Oneida Chief who has arrived at the Continental army encampment in Cambridge. Washington believes he has come "principaly to satisfy his Curiosity." But Washington hopes he will take a favorable report back to his people, with "important Consequences" to the American cause. The Oneidas are members of the Iroquois or Six Nation League of the upper New York region. To preserve their lands from incursions by either side, the League attempts a policy of neutrality. The Revolution, however, causes a civil war among the Iroquois, and the Oneidas are one of the few tribes to side with the Americans. George Washington to Massachusetts General Court, September 28, 1775

October 4, 1775

Washington writes Congress about the treasonous activities of Dr. Benjamin Church. Church, a leading physician in Boston, has been active in the Sons of Liberty, in the Boston Committee of Correspondence, and the Massachusetts Committee of Safety and Provincial Congress. At the same time, however, he has been spying for British military commander of Boston Thomas Gage. In his October 5 letter to Congress, Washington describes how one of Church's letters to Gage was intercepted. Eventually Church is tried by several different courts and jailed. In 1778, he is allowed to go into exile. He is lost at sea on his way to the West Indies. Congress passes more severe penalties for treason as a result of this case. George Washington to Congress, October 5, 1775

October 18, 1775

A British squadron under command of Lieutenant Henry Mowat bombards and burns the Falmouth (Portland, Maine) waterfront after providing inhabitants time to evacuate the area. Washington writes the governors of Rhode Island and Connecticut, October 24, enclosing an account of the attack by a Falmouth citizen, Pearson Jones, and severely criticizing the British for not allowing enough time for inhabitants to remove their belongings. When Mowat briefly comes ashore on May 9, he is captured by Brunswick, Maine, citizens, but they are persuaded by Falmouth town leaders to let him go. Pearson Jones's Account of the Destruction of Falmouth, October 24, 1775

October 24, 1775

Washington writes to the Falmouth, Maine, Safety Committee to explain why he cannot send the detachment from his army they request. Throughout the war, the British attempt to lure Washington into committing his whole army to battles he cannot win, or, into weakening it by sending out detachments to meet British incursions. George Washington to Falmouth, Maine, Safety Committee, October 24, 1775

November 1, 1775

Congress learns of King George's rejection of the Olive Branch Petition, his declaration that the Colonies are in rebellion, and of reports that British regulars sent to subdue them will be accompanied by German mercenaries.

November 5, 1775

General Orders, Washington reprimands the troops in Cambridge for celebrating the anti-Catholic holiday, Guy Fawkes Day, while Congress and the army are attempting to win the friendship of French Canadian Catholics. He also writes commander of the northern army, Philip Schuyler, on the importance of the acquisition of Canada to the American cause. George Washington, General Orders, November 5, 1775 | George Washington to Philip Schuyler, November 5, 1775

December 31, 1775

Benedict Arnold and Richard Montgomery and their forces join on the St. Lawrence River to attack Quebec. Montgomery has recently taken Montreal and has replaced Philip Schuyler, then weakened by illness, as commander of the northern army. During the attack, Montgomery is killed immediately and Arnold is wounded. The attack fails, but Arnold follows it with a siege of the city, which also fails. On June 18, 1776, Arnold will be the last to retreat from Canada and the still undefeated city of Montreal, then commanded by Sir Guy Carleton. On January 27, Washington will write Arnold to commiserate with him on the failure of the campaign. Arnold is commissioned a brigadier general in the Continental Army on January 10, 1776. George Washington to Benedict Arnold, January 27, 1776

January 7, 1776

Washington writes Connecticut governor Jonathan Trumbull from Cambridge. Washington has "undoubted intelligence" that the British plan to shift the focus of their campaign to New York City. The capture of this city "would give them the Command of the Country and the Communication with Canada." He intends to send Major General Charles Lee to New York to raise a force there to defend the City. George Washington to Jonathan Trumbull, January 7, 1776 | George Washington to Charles Lee, January 30, 1776

February 4, 1776

Major General Charles Lee and British General Henry Clinton both arrive in New York City on the same day. Lee writes that Clinton claims "it is merely a visit to his Friend Tryon" [William Tryon, the former royal governor of New York]. "If it is really so, it is the most whimsical piece of civility I ever heard." Clinton claims that he intends heading south where he will receive British reinforcements. Lee writes, "to communicate his plan to the Enemy is too novel to be creditted." Clinton does eventually head south, receiving his reinforcements at Cape Fear on March 12.

March 27, 1776

The British evacuate Boston. Washington writes Congress with the news of this and of his plans for detaching regiments of the Army in Cambridge to New York under Brigadier General John Sullivan, with the remainder of the Army to follow. George Washington to Congress, March 27, 1776

April 4, 1776

Washington leaves Cambridge, Massachusetts with the Army and by April 14 is in New York.

April 17, 1776

Washington writes the New York Committee of Safety. New York has not yet come down decisively on the side of independence, and merchants and government officials are supplying the British ships still in the harbor. Washington, angry at the continued communication with the enemy, asks the Committee if the evidence about them does not suggest that the former Colonies and Great Britain are now at war. He insists that such communications should cease. George Washington to the New York Safety Committee, April 17, 1776

South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia begin campaigns to crush the Overhill Cherokees. The British Proclamation of 1763 limited frontier settlement to the eastern side of the Appalachians to prevent incursions into Indian lands and resulting costly wars. But the Proclamation has not been observed and hostilities between white settlers and Cherokees have grown over the decades. Supplied with arms by the British, the Overhill Cherokees begin a series of raids. State militias respond with expeditions and raids of their own. By the Treaty of DeWitt's Corner, May 1777, the Cherokees cede almost all their land in South Carolina. Similar treaties result in land cessions to North Carolina and Virginia.

June 4, 1776

A British fleet under command of Commodore Sir Peter Parker with Clinton and his reinforcements approaches the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.

June 28, 1776

The British begin bombardment of Fort Sullivan in Charleston harbor. Failing to take the Fort, the British retreat to New York.

June 29, 1776

General William Howe, and his brother, Admiral Richard Howe, arrive in New York harbor from Boston. In late June, the American army from the campaign against Montreal and Quebec reassembles at Fort Ticonderoga.

July 9, 1776

Washington leads an American Independence celebration in New York City, reading the Declaration of Independence to the troops and sending copies of it to generals in the Continental Army. George Washington to General Artemas Ward, July 9, 1776

July 14, 1776

The Howe brothers attempt to contact Washington to open negotiations, but Washington refuses their letter which is addressed to "George Washington, Esq., etc., etc.," a form of address appropriate for a private gentleman rather than for the commander of an army.

August 20, 1776

British forces, concentrated on Staten Island, cross over to Long Island for the war's first major battle. Washington has approximately 23,000 troops, mostly militia. Commanding Continental officers participating are Lord Stirling (William Alexander), Israel Putnam, John Sullivan, and Nathanael Greene. Howe has approximately 20,000 troops.

August 27, 1776

Howe attacks on Long Island and the American lines retreat. Lord Stirling holds out the longest before surrendering the same day. Robert H. Harrison, one of Washington's aides, writes Congress with news of the day's battle and information on Washington's current whereabouts on Long Island. Robert H. Harrison to Congress, August 27, 1776

August 28-29, 1776

During a heavy night fog, Washington and his army silently evacuate Long Island by boat to Manhattan, escaping almost certain capture by Howe's army.

August 31, 1776

Washington writes Congress about the evacuation and about a forthcoming request from British General William Howe to meet with members of Congress. A formal request from Howe is sent to Congress via captured American general, John Sullivan. A committee made up of Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge meet with Howe on September 6. But discussions cease when the committee learns that Howe's only offer is that if the rebels lay down their arms, they may await the generosity of the British government. George Washington to Congress, August 31, 1776

September 15, 1776

Howe's army attacks Manhattan at Kip's Bay, where a Connecticut militia unit flees in fear and confusion. Washington writes Congress, calling the rout "disgraceful and dastardly conduct," and describing his own efforts to halt it. On September 16, the same unit redeems itself in the battle of Harlem Heights. In his September 17 general orders, Washington praises the officers and soldiers, noting the contrast to the "Behavior of Yesterday." George Washington to Congress, September 16, 1776 | George Washington, General Orders, September 17, 1776

September 24, 1776

Washington writes Congress on the obstacles to creating a permanent, well-trained Continental Army to face the regulars of the British Army and describes his frustrations in employing local militia units. He closes by acknowledging the traditional fears of a "standing army" in a republic but urges Congress to consider that the war may be lost without one. George Washington to Congress, September 24, 1776

September 26, 1776

Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Thomas Jefferson are named American commissioners to France by Congress.

October 11-13, 1776

Benedict Arnold wins the naval battle of Valcour Island off Crown Point. A small victory, it nonetheless causes Sir Guy Carleton to delay plans for an invasion from Canada.

October 16, 1776

Washington orders the retreat of the army off Manhattan Island. New York City is lost to the British. British General William Howe wins a knighthood for his successes in the campaign of 1776.

November 16, 1776

Fort Washington and its garrison of 250 men on the east side of the Hudson River fall to the British, commanded by General Charles Cornwallis. Fort Lee, on the west side, is abandoned by the Americans two days later.

November - December 1776

Under command of General Charles Cornwallis, the British invade New Jersey. Cornwallis takes Newark November 28 and pursues Washington and his army to New Brunswick.

December 6, 1776

British General Henry Clinton takes Newport, Rhode Island.

December 7, 1776

Washington's army finishes crossing the Delaware, with the British close behind. Once on the western side of the river, Washington awaits reinforcements. By mid-December, he is joined by Horatio Gates, John Sullivan, and their Continental Army forces. The British establish winter camps in various New Jersey locations , with the Hessians primarily at Bordentown and Trenton, and the British regulars at Princeton.

December 25, 1776

Washington orders readings to the assembled troops from Thomas Paine's The Crisis , with its famous passage, "These are the times that try men's souls." The Crisis had just been published December 23 in Philadelphia.

December 25-26, 1776

During the night, General Washington, General Henry Knox, and troops cross the Delaware in freezing winter weather to launch a surprise attack on British and Hessian mercenaries encamped at Trenton. Early morning, December 26, the attack begins, with Generals Nathanael Greene and John Sullivan leading the infantry assault against the Hessians, commanded by Colonel Johann Rall. After a short battle, Washington's army takes Trenton.

December 27, 1776

Congress gives Washington special powers for six months. He may raise troops and supplies from states directly, appoint officers and administer the army, and arrest inhabitants who refuse to accept Continental currency as payment or otherwise show themselves to be disloyal. Washington acknowledges these extraordinary powers, assuring Congress that he will use them to its honor. George Washington to Congress, January 1, 1777

December 31, 1776

Washington writes Congress with a general report of the state of the troops. Toward the end, he notes that "free Negroes who have served in the Army, are very much dissatisfied at being discarded." To prevent them from serving the British instead, he has decided to re-enlist them. In 1775, Washington had opposed enlisting not just slaves but free blacks as well. His general orders of November 12, 1775, direct that "neither Negroes, Boys unable to bare Arms, nor old men unfit to endure the fatigues of the campaign" are to be recruited. In 1776 and thereafter, he reverses himself on both counts. George Washington, General Orders, November 12, 1775 | George Washington to Congress, December 31, 1775

January 3, 1777

Washington's army captures the British garrison at nearby Princeton. Washington sets up winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, where he spends the next several months rebuilding the Continental Army with new enlistments.

April 12, 1777

British General Charles Cornwallis opens the 1777 campaign in New Jersey in an attempt to lure Washington and his army out from winter headquarters at Morristown.

April 17, 1777

Washington writes General William Maxwell, commander of the Continental light infantry and also of the New Jersey militia, to ready himself and his troops for the 1777 campaign. George Washington to William Maxwell, April 17, 1777

May 29, 1777

Washington moves his headquarters to Middlebrook, south of Morristown.

June 20, 1777

Washington writes Congress and General Philip Schuyler on the success of the New Jersey militia in forcing the British out of New Jersey and on the general failure of the British to win the inhabitants there back to allegiance to the Crown. George Washington to Congress, June 20, 1777 | George Washington to Philip Schuyler, June 20, 1777

June 22, 1777

The British evacuate New Brunswick, New Jersey, to Amboy, and then back to Staten Island.

June 27, 1777

The Marquis de Lafayette arrives in Philadelphia from France to offer his services to the American cause. He is nineteen years old. He is commissioned a major general by Congress and meets Washington on August 1. He and Washington form a close friendship.

Washington moves his army to the Hudson above the Highlands of New York. The Highlands are a range of hills across the Hudson Valley. American forts built on each side of the Hudson River, a giant thirty-five-ton, 850-link chain, and a series of spiked logs on the river bottom all guard access to the interior of the country.

July 11, 1777

Washington writes Congress requesting that it order Benedict Arnold to join Philip Schuyler in halting British General John Burgoyne's invasion of New York from Canada, which began on June 23.

July 23, 1777

General Sir William Howe sets sail from New York City with approximately 15,000 men. He embarks on a campaign to take Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress. General Henry Clinton remains in command in New York City with British and loyalist forces. Howe and his force land at Head of Elk on Chesapeake Bay August 25.

August 3, 1777

British Colonel Barry St. Leger with a force of British regulars, Canadians, and Indian allies, lays siege to Fort Stanwix (Schuyler) in the western Mohawk Valley. Benedict Arnold and 900 Continentals arrive, forcing St. Leger to retreat back to Canada.

August 6, 1777

The Battle of Oriskany, British Colonel Barry St. Leger and Seneca Indians and loyalists ambush patriot German militia and Oneida Indian allies under command of General Nicholas Herkimer. The hand-to-hand fighting is so severe that St. Leger's Indian allies abandon him in disgust. Herkimer dies of his wounds. The battle brings to a head a long-impending civil war among the nations of the Iroquois League.

August 16, 1777

In the Battle of Bennington, where Burgoyne has sent a detachment to forage for much needed supplies, the American Brigadier General John Stark and local militia kill or capture nearly 1,000 of Burgoyne's 7,000 troop invading army, further slowing British invasion plans.

September 11, 1777

In the Battle of Brandywine, Howe and Washington clash, with major engagements near Birmingham Meeting House Hill. Washington is forced to retreat.

September 19-21, 1777

Washington's army is camped about twenty miles from Germantown, where Howe is concentrated for his invasion of Philadelphia. The British inflict 1000 casualties in a night attack on General Anthony Wayne's Brigade near Paoli's Tavern. The attack on Wayne is led by British General Charles Grey, called "No Flint" Grey because of his preference for the bayonet over the musket. The "Paoli Massacre" becomes an American rallying cry among Continental troops. Wayne requests a court martial to clear his name of any dishonor, a not unusual request. Washington's general orders of November 1, 1777, report the court's favorable decision. George Washington, General Orders, November 1, 1777

October 3, 1777

At 7pm in the evening, Washington's forces begin the march to Germantown, where Washington hopes to encircle Howe's army. Commanding 8,000 Continentals and 3,000 militia are Generals Adam Stephen, Nathanael Greene, Alexander McDougall, John Sullivan, Anthony Wayne, and Thomas Conway. George Washington, General Orders, October 3, 1777

October 4, 1777

Washington's forces are defeated at Germantown. One wing marches down the wrong road, and General Conway's brigade inadvertently alerts the British to the impending attack. In the course of battle, Wayne and Stephen's men fire upon each other in confusion. Greene's retreat is mistakenly taken by the rest of the troops as a signal for a general retreat. Washington writes Congress an account of the battle, attempting to allay Congress's and his own disappointment by describing it as "rather unfortunate than injurious" in the large scale of things. George Washington to Congress, October 5, 1777

October 6, 1777

Washington responds to a letter from British General William Howe, who has written about the destruction of mills belonging to "peaceable Inhabitants" during the recent engagement. Howe allows that Washington probably did not order these depredations but requests that he put a stop to them. Washington responds heatedly, citing depredations by the British in Charles Town, Massachusetts, which was burned at the beginning of the war, and of other instances. In a short additional letter of the same date, Washington writes Howe that his pet dog has fallen into American hands and he is returning him. Washington and Howe correspond regularly in the course of the War, most often about prisoner exchanges. George Washington to William Howe, October 6, 1777 | George Washington to William Howe, October 6, 1777

October 17, 1777

British General John Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga, to General Horatio Gates, the new commander of the northern army. The "Convention of Saratoga," negotiated by Gates, allows Burgoyne's army of 5,871 British regulars and German mercenaries to return to England and Europe on the promise that they will not fight in North America again. Congress finds various reasons for not allowing Burgoyne's army to leave, for fear that its return to England or the Continent will free an equal number of other troops to come to North America to fight. Burgoyne's army will be detained in various locations in Massachusetts and then settled on a tract of land in Virginia near Charlottesville. In September 1781, the "Convention Army" is removed to Maryland because of Cornwallis's invasion of Virginia. At the close of the War, Burgoyne's army has dwindled to a mere 1,500 due to escapes, desertions, but most significantly to the number of the troops deciding to stay and settle in America.

October 19, 1777

Howe and the British enter Philadelphia. Congress has fled to York, Pennsylvania.

September 24 - October 23, 1777

British general henry clinton's invasion of the highlands, september 24.

General Henry Clinton in New York receives substantial reinforcements of British regulars and German mercenaries.

Clinton receives a note from General John Burgoyne who warns him about Horatio Gates's army, which is growing with additions of militia.

Clinton and his forces attack and take Fort Montgomery and make a bayonet attack on Fort Clinton. Both forts are on the west side of the Hudson River. The Highlands region is commanded by Israel Putnam, a Continental major general. The forts are commanded by newly elected governor of New York, George Clinton, and his brother, James, both of whom are distant cousins of British General Henry Clinton. George and James Clinton and most of the forts' defenders manage to escape.

American troops burn Fort Constitution on the east side of the Hudson River and depart. George Clinton and Israel Putnam decide to retreat north with the remnant of their troops. British Major General John Vaughn, Commodore Sir James Wallace, and former royal governor of New York, William Tryon, and their forces continue up the Hudson River. October 14, they burn the shipyards of Poughkeepsie, and a number of small villages and large houses, among the latter that of William Livingston, governor of New Jersey.

The British force which began its invasion up the Hudson River reaches Albany. There, Major General John Vaughn learns of Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga the previous day.

British forces under Major General Vaughn begin their return back down the Hudson River to New York City, and in early November they evacuate the Highlands and the forts they have captured there.

November 3, 1777

The "conway cabal" and valley forge.

General Lord Stirling (William Alexander) of New Jersey writes Washington, enclosing a note that recounts General Thomas Conway's criticisms of Washington and of Conway's preference for Horatio Gates as commander in chief of the Continental Army. October 28, Gates's aide, James Wilkinson, had incautiously related the matter over drink in a tavern in Reading, where Stirling was also staying. Washington writes Conway, November 5, tersely informing him of his knowledge of the affair. George Washington to Thomas Conway, November 5, 1777

In the wake of his victory over Burgoyne, Horatio Gates, the "Hero of Saratoga," has been appointed by Congress as the head of a reorganized Board of War. Thomas Conway is appointed Inspector General of the Army. December 13, Conway visits Washington and his troops at winter quarters at Valley Forge. There the troops have been suffering severe hardships and to some critics they no longer resemble an organized army. After exchanges between Conway and Congress, and Washington and Congress, the Board's Congressional members decide to visit Valley Forge. Carrying out a thorough investigation, the Board places blame on Congress and Thomas Mifflin, quartermaster general, for the low condition of the Army at Valley Forge. Washington writes Lafayette December 31, 1777, and Patrick Henry, February 19 and March 28, 1778. Washington describes the conditions at Valley Forge as at times "little less than a famine." George Washington to Lafayette, December 31, 1777 | George Washington to Patrick Henry, February 19, 1778 | George Washington to Patrick Henry, March 28, 1778

January 2, 1778

Washington forwards to governor Nicholas Cooke a letter from General James Varnum advising him that Rhode Island's troop quota should be completed with blacks. Washington urges Cooke to give the recruiting officers every assistance. In February, the Rhode Island legislature approves the action. Enlisted slaves will receive their freedom in return for their service. The resulting black regiment, commanded by white Quaker Christopher Greene, has its first engagement at the battle of Rhode Island (or, Newport) July 29-August 31, where it holds off two Hessian regiments. The regiment also fights at the battle of Yorktown. Slaves enlisted in the Continental Army typically receive a subsistence, their freedom, and a cash payment at the end of the war. Slaves and free blacks rarely receive regular pay or land bounties. In 1777, the New Jersey militia act allows for the recruitment of free blacks but not slaves, as does Maryland's legislature in 1781. On March 20, 1781, New York authorizes the enlistment of slaves in militia units, for which they receive their freedom at the end of the war. Virginia rejects James Madison's arguments for enlisting slaves in addition to free blacks, but many enlist anyway, presenting themselves for freedom after the war. George Washington to Nicholas Cooke, January 2, 1778

February 6, 1778

The Franco-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce is signed in Paris. Since 1776, the French government has been secretly providing Congress with military supplies and financial aid. March 13, the French minister in London informs King George III that France recognizes the United States. May 4, Congress ratifies the Treaty of Alliance with France, and further military and financial assistance follows. By June, France and England are at war. The American Revolution has become an international war.

February 18, 1778

Washington addresses a letter to the inhabitants of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, requesting cattle for the army for the period of May through June. Washington writes them that the "States have contended, not unsuccessfully, with one of the most Powerful Kingdoms upon Earth." After several years of war, "we now find ourselves at least upon a level with our opponents." George Washington to the Inhabitants of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, February 18, 1778

February 23, 1778

Baron Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin Steuben, a volunteer from Germany, arrives at Valley Forge with a letter of introduction from the President of Congress, Henry Laurens. Congress publishes his military training manual, which he has had translated into English. He trains a model company of forty-seven men at Valley Forge and then proceeds to the general training of the army. Congress commissions Steuben a major general and makes him an inspector general of the Continental Army. Steuben becomes an American citizen after the war.

March 1, 1778

Congress orders the Board of War to recruit Indians into the Continental Army. March 13, Washington writes the Commissioners of Indian Affairs on how he thinks he may employ the Indians recruited. George Washington to Philip Schuyler, James Duane, and Volkert Douw, March 13, 1778

March 8, 1778

Lord Germain (George Sackville), Colonial Secretary in London, sends British General Henry Clinton orders for a change of direction in the conduct of the war. The British are to focus on the south, where Germain estimates loyalists to be more numerous. Actions in the north are to be limited to raids and blockades of the coast. May 8, Clinton will replace General Sir William Howe as commander of British forces in North America.

The British government sends the Carlisle Commission to North America. The Commission is made up of the Earl of Carlisle (Frederick Howard), William Eden, and George Johnston, and their secretary. Parliament has repealed all laws opposed by the American colonies since 1763. The Commission is instructed to offer home rule to the Colonies and hopes to begin negotiations before Congress receives news of the Franco-American Treaty (which it does on May 8). Congress ratifies the Treaty and ignores the Commission. April 22, Congress resolves not to engage in negotiations on terms that fall short of complete independence. Late in 1778, the Commission returns to England.

May-June 1778

British General Henry Clinton begins to move the main part of the British army from Pennsylvania to New York via New Jersey. Washington's army, also located in Pennsylvania, gives chase.

June 18, 1778

Washington sends six brigades ahead and on June 21 he crosses the Delaware River with the rest of the army. By June 22, the British are in New Jersey, and Benedict Arnold is fast approaching the twelve-mile long baggage train that makes up the end of Clinton's marching army.

June 28, 1778

The Battle of Monmouth Courthouse. Washington's army catches up with Clinton's. The one-day battle is fought to a stalemate, both armies exhausted by the day's unusual heat. But Washington is impressed with the performance of the American troops against the well-trained veteran British regulars. Clinton and his army continue on to New York, while Washington establishes camp at White Plains.

June 29, 1778

Washington writes in his general orders of the day about the success of the New Jersey militia in "harrassing and impeding their [the British] Motions so as to allow the Continental Troops time to come up with them" before the battle of Monmouth Courthouse. German Captain John Ewald, fighting for the British, in his Diary of the American War: A Hessian Journal (New Haven and London, 1979), observes during the march through New Jersey that the "whole province was in arms, following us with Washington's army, constantly surrounding us on our marches and besieging our camps." "Each step," Ewald writes, "cost human blood." From now on, Washington begins to employ local militia units in this manner more often.

July 3, 1778

Loyalist Colonel John Butler with local troops and Seneca Indian allies invades Wyoming Valley, north of the Susquehanna River, and attacks at "Forty Fort." In the frontier war along the New York and Pennsylvania frontier, Onandagas, Cayugas, Senecas, and Mohawks of the Iroquois League ally with the British. Joseph Brant (Joseph Fayadanega), a Mohawk war chief educated in English missionary schools and an Anglican convert, has significant influence among British government and military leaders. Oneidas and Tuscororas ally with the Americans. Washington writes Philip Schuyler, a member of the Indian commission for the northern department. George Washington to Philip Schuyler, July 22, 1778

July 4, 1778

George Rogers Clark defeats the British and captures Kaskaskia near the Mississippi River. Clark has been organizing the defense of the sparsely settled Kentucky region against British and Indian ally raids. In October 1777, Clark puts before Virginia governor Patrick Henry a plan to capture several British posts in the Illinois country, of which Kaskaskia is one. Clark and about 175 men take the fort and town, which is inhabited mainly by French settlers. Clark convinces them and their Indian allies on the Wabash River to support the American cause. The British continue to hold sway at Fort Detroit, commanded by Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton, and Clark spends the next several years attempting to dislodge him. Washington writes governor of Virginia, Thomas Jefferson, December 28, 1780, in support of Clark's efforts to take Fort Detroit. George Washington to Thomas Jefferson, December 28, 1780

July - August 1778

Charles Hector, Comte d'Estaing and his French fleet plan to participate with General John Sullivan in a combined assault on the British position in Newport, Rhode Island. Sullivan's troops are delayed and d'Estaing's fleet is battered by a hurricane after an indecisive battle. He withdraws to Boston and later sails for the Caribbean Islands where he attacks British islands.

November 9, 1778

British General Henry Clinton sends approximately 3,000 troops south under Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell, and a fleet under command of Admiral Hyde Parker is assembled to coordinate an invasion of South Carolina and Georgia with General Augustine Prevost and his regular and loyalist troops in Florida. Campbell and his troops land at Savannah in late December.

November 14, 1778

Washington writes Henry Laurens, president of the Continental Congress, confidentially, about a plan for a French campaign against the British in Canada that Lafayette very much wants to lead. In 1759, during the Seven Years War, the French had been driven out of Canada by the British and American colonial forces. Washington has become personally attached to the young Lafayette. But he is also aware of the eagerness of all the French officers serving with the American cause to regain Canadian territories. Washington expresses concerns about the future independence of the American republic should European powers retain a strong presence in North America: a French presence able to "dispute" the sea power of Great Britain, and Spain "certainly superior, possessed of New Orleans, on our Right." George Washington to Henry Laurens, November 14, 1778

November 1778

Washington detaches General Lachlan McIntosh from Valley Forge to command the western department of the Ohio country where bitter frontier war has erupted. McIntosh establishes Fort McIntosh on the Ohio River, 30 miles from Pittsburgh, and Fort Laurens, further west, as bases from which to launch campaigns against British and Shawnee, Wyandot, and Mingo allies operating out of Fort Detroit. After bitter warfare, McIntosh is forced to abandon the forts in June of 1779.

January 29, 1779

Augusta, the capital of Georgia, falls to British forces. General Benjamin Lincoln, whose army is camped at Purysburg, South Carolina, sends a detachment toward Augusta and on February 13, the British evacuate the town.

February 25, 1779

Congress directs Washington to respond to British, Indian, and loyalist attacks on frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania. Washington sends out an expedition under command of General John Sullivan. Sullivan's forces include William Maxwell and a New Jersey brigade, Enoch Poor and a New Hampshire brigade, and Edward Hand and Pennsylvania and Maryland troops. After a series of savage raids and counter-raids between the British and the Americans, including an encounter with British Indian ally Joseph Brant and his Mohawks, and Captain Walter Butler (John Butler's son) and his loyalists, the expedition returns home on September 14. Forty Iroquois villages and their extensive farms lands and crops have been destroyed. The Iroquois soon return, resettle, and rejoin the British in an retaliatory invasion in the northwest. George Washington to John Sullivan, March 6, 1779

March 3, 1779

British Major James Mark Prevost defeats Brigadier General John Ashe and his force at Briar Creek, Georgia. In response, Benjamin Lincoln and the southern army cross into Georgia. Lincoln's and Prevost's forces move back and forth between Georgia and South Carolina in an attempt to engage each other, but eventually summer heat and illness bring both armies to a standstill.

March 20, 1779

Washington responds to Henry Laurens's March 16th letter on the possibility of raising a black regiment for the defense of the south. Washington writes Laurens that he would rather wait till the British first raise such regiments before the Americans do so. He also expresses some general reservations. But "this is a subject that has never employed much of my thoughts," and he describes his opinions as "no more than the first crude Ideas that have struck me upon the occasion." Henry Laurens is from South Carolina. Previously president of Congress, he is serving on a committee charged with forming a plan of defense for the south. The committee issues its report March 29, urging the formation of regiments of slaves for the defense of the south, for which Congress will compensate slaveowners and the slaves will receive their freedom and $50. Henry Laurens's son, John Laurens is appointed to raise the regiments. South Carolina and Georgia reject Congress's recommendation (see entry under July 10, 1782 below). Successive commanders of the southern army, Benjamin Lincoln and Nathanael Greene, support the formation of slave regiments in the south but to no avail. George Washington to Henry Laurens and Thomas Burke, March 18, 1779 | George Washington to Henry Laurens, March 20, 1779

May 28, 1779

British General Henry Clinton launches another campaign up the Hudson River. On May 30, New York Governor George Clinton orders out the militia. June 1, the British take Stony Point and Verplank's Point on either side of the river.

June 21, 1779

Spain declares war on Great Britain.

June 30, 1779

William Tryon, former royal governor of New York, and 2,600 loyalists and British regulars on forty-eight ships raid Fairport, New Haven, and Norwalk, Connecticut. Tryon wants to prosecute a war of desolation against rebel inhabitants. On July 9, he orders most of Fairfield burned because its militia shot at the British from within their houses, and on July 11 he burns Norwalk. British General Henry Clinton, probably reluctant to endorse Tryon's theories of warfare, never gives him an independent command again.

July 16, 1779

Anthony Wayne and his force of light infantry force the British out of Stony Point, and August 18-19 Major Henry Lee takes the British post at Paulus Hook. Neither of these positions are maintained after their capture, but they are morale boosters in a war that has become a stalemate.

September 27, 1779

Washington writes state governors Jonathan Trumbull (Connecticut), George Clinton (New York), and William Livingston (New Jersey) about reports of the arrival of a French Fleet and of the necessity of preparing the militia and raising food supplies, especially flour. George Washington, Circular Letter, September 27, 1779

October 4, 1779

Washington writes Congress and Comte d'Estaing, who is with his fleet off Georgia or in the West Indies. To Congress, Washington summarizes his efforts at organizing a cooperative effort with the French fleet to attack the British. To d'Estaing, Washington writes that "New York is the first and capital object, upon which every other is dependant," its capture likely to be a severe blow to the British. In his long letter to d'Estaing, Washington writes that he has "not concealed the difficulties in the way of a cooperation," but has the "highest hopes of its utility to the common cause" and its contribution to ending the war victoriously. George Washington to Congress, October 4, 1779 | George Washington to Comte d'Estaing, October 4, 1779

October 19,1779

Tthe Americans and Comte d'Estaing's fleet make a combined assault on British-held Savannah, Georgia. The assault fails, and d'Estaing and the fleet sail for France before the hurricane season begins. The French government assembles troops and another fleet for a return to North America.

December 26, 1779

British General Henry Clinton and Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot set sail from New York City with fourteen warships, ninety transports, and approximately 8500 troops for an invasion of Charleston, South Carolina.

January 15, 1780

At Washington's urging, Major General Stirling crosses the ice with 3000 men to attack the British force on Staten Island, commanded by General Wilhelm von Knyphausen. Stirling is forced to retreat without attacking because of the severe cold. Throughout the early winter Washington orders raids on British forces left in New York.

February 1, 1780

British Major John Simcoe leads two hundred of his Rangers in a foray into New Jersey. His original aim is to lure Washington out from Morristown and capture him. But Knyphausen, commanding in Clinton's absence, orders Simcoe to confine himself to raids. Simcoe reaches Woodbridge but is forced to turn back by the militia. In March, the British continue to raid New Jersey in the so-called "forage wars," keeping American inhabitants and militia in a constant state of emergency.

April 2, 1780

Washington writes Congress, reporting on intelligence he has received about movements of further British troops south. The "weak state of our force there and unhappily in this quarter also, have laid me under great embarrassments, with respect to the conduct that ought to be pursued." He estimates the Continental Army to be at a strength of 10,000, of which 2,800 have completed their term of service and more at the end of April. Nonetheless, Washington intends to send Maryland and Delaware Continental regiments to the aid of the south. George Washington to Congress, April 2, 1780

April 6, 1780

George Washington's general orders contain an account of the Major General Benedict Arnold's conviction by the Executive Council of Pennsylvania on two of four charges of malfeasance while Arnold was military governor of Philadelphia. Washington's general orders contain the reprimand he is required to make by the Council. The reprimand recognizes Arnold's "distinguished services to his Country" but describes his conduct in one of the two charges for which he was found guilty "peculiarly reprehensible, both in a civil and military view." George Washington, General Orders, April 6, 1780

June 17, 1780

British General Henry Clinton returns to New York City from the south.

June 23, 1780

General Wilhelm von Knyphausen and Clinton attempt to lure Washington's army out of Morristown. Knyphausen attacks Nathanael Greene, Philemon Dickinson, and their Continental and militia forces on June 23 at Springfield. Springfield is burned but the British abandon their position there the same day. Washington expects yet another invasion up the Hudson with West Point as a particular target. He writes Congress about the engagement at Springfield and to General Robert Howe with instructions on safeguarding West Point. George Washington to Congress, June 25, 1780 | George Washington to Robert Howe, June 25, 1780

July 11, 1780

The long-expected French squadron arrives in Newport, Rhode Island, with 5,000 troops under the command of Lieutenant General Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vigneur, Comte de Rochambeau. Rochambeau declines Washington's suggestion of an immediate attack on New York. The ships and troops remain in Newport until June 1781, when they will move toward Washington's encampment in Westchester County, preparatory to a cooperative engagement with the Americans against the British.

September 25, 1780

Benedict Arnold, commander of West Point, flees to the British ship Vulture in the Hudson River. He has been planning to defect to the British and has learned that his British contact, Major John André, has been captured and that Washington is due to arrive at West Point to review the fort and its garrison. Washington, Henry Knox, Lafayette, and aide Colonel Alexander Hamilton arrive not knowing the cause of Arnold's absence and proceed with a review of the fort. They discover Arnold's defection.

In a letter to Congress the next day, Washington notes that the militia who had captured Major André had been offered a "large sum of money for his release, and as many goods as they would demand, but without any effect." In his September 26 general orders, Washington tells the officers and troops that "Great honor is due to the American Army that this is the first instance of Treason of the kind where many were to be expected from the nature of the dispute, and nothing is so bright an ornament in the Character of the American soldiers as their having been proof against all the arts and seductions of an insidious enemy." Washington also writes George Clinton, governor of New York, and John Laurens about Arnold's defection to the British. George Washington to Congress, September 26 | George Washington to George Clinton, September 26, 1780 | George Washington, General Orders, September 26, 1780 | George Washington to John Laurens, October 13, 1780

November 27, 1780

Washington writes General Anthony Wayne about depredations on the civilian populace by the Continental army. The army is often ill-supplied and sometimes starving. But Washington urges Wayne to protect the "persons and properties of the inhabitants....They have, from their situation, borne much of the burthen of the War and have never failed to relieve the distresses of the Army, when properly called upon." Washington declares that these robberies "are as repugnant to the principles of the cause in which we are engaged as oppressive to the inhabitants and subversive of that order and discipline which must Characterize every well regulated army." His November 6 general orders note the "disorderly conduct of the soldiers" with passes. George Washington to Anthony Wayne, November 27, 1780 | George Washington, General Orders, November 6, 1780

December 20, 1780

Benedict Arnold, now a brigadier general in the British army, departs New York City with 1600 men. He plans to invade Virginia.

April 8 - December 2, 1780

The war in the south.

British General Henry Clinton summons General Benjamin Lincoln to surrender before beginning bombardment of Charleston, South Carolina. Lincoln responds with a declaration to fight to the last. April 13, the British begin bombarding the town, and on April 14, Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton and his Legion and loyalist militia defeat Isaac Huger's troops at the battle of Monck's Corner outside the town. Having sealed the American army in the city, on May 8 Clinton sends another summons to surrender. Lincoln again refuses and the next evening, after further summons by Clinton, the army, according to German mercenary for the British, Captain Johann von Ewald, "shouted 'Hurrah' three times," opened fire, and all the city's church bells rang out in a seeming frenzy of futile resistance. Lieutenant Governor Christopher Gadsden, who had earlier opposed surrender, now requests that Lincoln do so to save the much damaged city from further destruction. Gadsden is supported by two petitions by citizens.

General Benjamin Lincoln surrenders Charleston, South Carolina, to British General Henry Clinton. German mercenary for the British, Captain Johann von Ewald, notes upon surrender that the "garrison consisted of handsome young men whose apparel was extremely ragged, and on the whole the people looked greatly starved." Officers are confined on land, while enlisted soldiers are held in prison ships in the harbor. A Virginia Continental regiment on its way to aid Charleston gets as far as the Santee River before learning of the surrender and then turns back to North Carolina. Clinton's proclamation to the citizens of South Carolina calls for a declaration of allegiance to the Crown. (Johann von Ewald, Diary of the American War: A Hessian Journal [New Haven and London: 1979].)

Henry Clinton sails back to New York, leaving General Charles Cornwallis in command with orders to move into the interior of South Carolina and to finish subduing the south.

Washington writes Connecticut governor, Jonathan Trumbull, that the capture of Charleston may force the British to "dissipate their force." In a June 14 letter to James Bowdoin, governor of Massachusetts, Washington writes that the loss or "Something like it seems to have been necessary, to rouse us...." George Washington to Jonathan Trumbull, June 11, 1780 | George Washington to James Bowdoin, June 14, 1780

American General Horatio Gates arrives in Coxe's Mill, North Carolina, to take command of a reconstituted southern army. The Maryland and Delaware Continental regiments sent by Washington have arrived under command of Baron Johann de Kalb. Two-thirds of Gates's army will consist of Virginia and North Carolina militia.

The Battle of Camden, South Carolina. Gates's army marches to Camden in hope of surprising the British there but instead runs into them by mistake. De Kalb is mortally wounded, and after heavy fighting Gates is forced to retreat by Lord Rawdon and Cornwallis and their forces. Of the approximately 4,000 American troops, only about 700 are left to rejoin Gates at Hillsboro. Washington writes Thomas Jefferson, governor of Virginia, with news of the heavy loss. George Washington to Thomas Jefferson, September 21, 1780

General Francis Marion and militia attack a British detachment, rescuing the Maryland regiment captured at Camden.

September 8

British General Charles Cornwallis begins his invasion of North Carolina.

Washington writes Thomas Jefferson, governor of Virginia, on the state of the Army and on British General Cornwallis's severity in his progress through the south. Washington refers to a letter Cornwallis has written to a fellow British officer, a transcript of which Washington has received, in which Cornwallis outlines punishments for rebels. [The text of Cornwallis's letter is reproduced in annotation in the transcription linked to this document.] Washington closes his letter to Jefferson with a full history of Benedict Arnold's defection to the British. George Washington to Thomas Jefferson, October 10, 1780

The Battle of King's Mountain in North Carolina. Cornwallis sends Major Patrick Ferguson ahead of him to raise loyalist troops in North Carolina. Prior to the march to King's Mountain, Ferguson sends a threatening message ahead that he will lay waste to the land if its inhabitants do not cease resistance. This so angers southern militia that they quickly raise a force and brutally defeat Ferguson and his troops. With King's Mountain, Cornwallis begins to realize that loyalist sentiment has been overestimated in British plans to subdue the south. Washington writes Abner Nash, governor of North Carolina, about the "success of the militia against Col Ferguson." George Washington to Abner Nash, November 6, 1780

Nathanael Greene replaces Horatio Gates as commander of the American southern army. He assumes command in Charlotte, North Carolina. His officers are Brigadier General Daniel Morgan, Lieutenant Colonel William Washington (a cousin of George Washington), and Lieutenant Colonel Henry Lee and his Legion. When Greene arrives in the south, he is appalled at the brutality and extent of the civil war between patriots and loyalists.

January 1, 1781

The Pennsylvania Continentals mutiny. Washington orders the New Jersey Continentals to march to position themselves between the mutinying troops and the British on Staten Island. Nonetheless, British General Henry Clinton learns of the mutiny and on January 3 gets messengers through to the Pennsylvania Continentals. But the mutineers turn the messengers over to Congress and they are hung as British spies.

January 3, 1781

Washington writes Anthony Wayne with news of the mutiny of the Pennsylvania Continentals. He worries that if Congress removes itself from Philadelphia, apart from the "indignity," it may provoke the mutineers to "wreak their vengeance upon the persons and properties of the citizens,...." In his January 7 letter to Henry Knox, Washington gives him instructions on where and how to obtain the supplies and necessities that he hopes will appease the mutineers. Washington describes to Knox the "alarming crisis to which our affairs have arrived by a too long neglect of measures essential to the existence of an Army,...." (See below on the mutiny of the New Jersey Continentals January 20) George Washington to Anthony Wayne, January 3, 1781 | George Washington to Henry Knox, January 7, 1781

January 5, 1781

Benedict Arnold invades Richmond, Virginia, and Governor Thomas Jefferson and government officials are forced to flee.

January 16-17, 1781

General Daniel Morgan and Lieutenant Colonel William Washington defeat British Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton's Legion at Cowpens, South Carolina. Tarleton escapes and is pursued unsuccessfully by William Washington and a company on horseback. The expression "Tarleton's Quarter," used by American soldiers during War, refers to the British officer's practice of not giving any, even in surrender. (William Washington is a cousin of George Washington.)

January-March 1781

Nathanael Greene (who took command of the Southern Army at Charlotte, North Carolina, December 2, 1780) leads General Charles Cornwallis and his forces on a chase through South and North Carolina.

Greene's path avoids engagements that he cannot win, exhausts Cornwallis and his army, and dangerously lengthens their supply lines. January - February, Greene and Cornwallis race to the Dan River on the Virginia border, with Cornwallis failing to catch up in time to cut off Greene and Colonel Otho Williams and their forces. February 14, Greene and Williams cross the Dan River into Virginia. Washington's March 21 letter to Greene congratulates him on saving his baggage "notwithstanding the hot pursuit of the Enemy," and assures him that his "Retreat before Lord Cornwallis is highly applauded by all Ranks and reflects much honor on your military Abilities." George Washington to Nathanael Greene, March 21, 1781

January 20, 1781

The New Jersey Continentals mutiny. Washington, fearing the total dissolution of the Army, urges severe measures. He is less excusing of this mutiny because, as he writes in a circular letter to the New England state governors, Congress has been working to redress the Continental Army's grievances. Washington orders Robert Howe from West Point to suppress the mutiny and to execute the most extreme ringleaders. Howe forms a court martial that sentences three leaders to be shot by twelve of their fellow mutineers. Two are executed and one pardoned. On January 27, Washington writes the Congressional committee formed to respond to the soldiers' grievances that "having punished guilt and supported authority, it now becomes proper to do justice" and urges the committee to provide the much needed redress. George Washington to the Committee for Resolving the Grievances of the New Jersey Line, January 27, 1781

March 1, 1781

The Articles of Confederation are ratified by Maryland, the last state to ratify, and can now go into effect. The Articles had been sent to the states for ratification in 1777.

May 21-22, 1781

Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau, commander of the French army in Rhode Island, meet in Wethersfield, Connecticut, and agree to appeal to Admiral Francois Joseph Paul, Comte de Grasse, to come north for a combined operation.

May 24, 1781

British General Charles Cornwallis encamps with troops on the Virginia plantation of William Byrd.

June 4, 1781

British Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton nearly captures Thomas Jefferson at Monticello. Jefferson, governor of Virginia, and other state officials flee to the Shenandoah Valley.

July 6, 1781

The French army and its commander Rochambeau, join Washington and his army at Dobb's Ferry, New York. Washington plans a combined assault on the British on Manhattan Island. August 14, he learns that the French fleet, consisting of 34 warships with transports carrying 3200 troops will be arriving in the Chesapeake from the West Indies under the command of Admiral Francois Joseph Paul, Comte de Grasse, and will be available for a combined effort until October 19.

September 18, 1781

Washington, Rochambeau, and de Grasse, meet on the Ville de Paris at Hampton Roads. September 28, their combined forces are arranged for battle against British General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown.

October 14, 1781

The Americans and French begin bombarding Yorktown. October 16, Cornwallis orders about 1,000 of his troops to attempt an escape across the York River.

October 17, 1781

Cornwallis offers a white flag and negotiations for surrender begin at Moore House in Yorktown.

October 19, 1781

Cornwallis's army surrenders. Washington asks Benjamin Lincoln to receive the surrender. Lincoln had been forced to surrender to British General Henry Clinton at Charleston May 13, 1780. Cornwallis, who is reportedly ill, designates Brigadier General Charles O'Hara to perform the formal surrender in his place. Tradition has it that as the British lay down their arms, their army band played an old Scottish tune adapted to the nursery rhyme, "The World Turned Upside Down."

A British fleet leaves New York harbor to come to the aid of Cornwallis in Virginia. Having arrived too late, the fleet hovers about the area for a few days and returns home October 28-30.

October 25, 1781

Washington's general orders declare that free blacks in the area in the wake of the battle of Yorktown should be left to go where they please, while slaves who have followed the British army must be returned to their owners. But the confusion of war allows some slaves an opportunity to gain their freedom in a variety of ways. Some slaves represent themselves as free, while others offer themselves as servants to French and American officers. Washington's general orders indicate that there were difficulties in returning slaves to their pre-war status. George Washington, General Orders, October 25, 1781

November 5, 1781

John Parke ("Jacky") Custis, Washington's stepson, dies of camp fever at Yorktown.

July 10, 1782

Washington writes his former aide Colonel John Laurens. Laurens has failed in his attempt to get permission from the Georgia legislature to raise a regiment of slaves and Washington attributes this to the "selfish Passion" of the legislature. Laurens has been attempting to raise such a regiment since 1779, first in his native South Carolina, then in Georgia. Laurens is killed by the British in a skirmish on August 25, 1782. He is one of the last officer casualties of the war. George Washington to John Laurens, July 10, 1782

August 19, 1782

The Battle of Blue Licks, in the Appalachian west, the British and their Indian allies, the Wyandot, Ottawa, Ojibwa, Shawnee, Mingo, and Delaware inflict heavy casualties and force the retreat of Daniel Boone and the Kentucky militia. In response, George Rogers Clark leads Kentucky militia on an expedition against the British into Ohio country. These are often considered the last formal engagements of the Revolutionary War.

March 13, 1783

Washington addresses mutinous Continental officers at Newburgh, New York. Their pay long in arrears, the officers fear that their pensions will also be unpaid. In December 1782, representative officers from each state's Continental line had sent a petition to Congress insisting on immediate payment and suggesting the substitution of lump sums for pensions. The officers, most of whom are at the army's headquarters at Newburgh, learn that Congress has rejected the petition. Washington calls a meeting of representative officers and staff and delivers a speech and reads an extract from Congress. Referring to the glasses he must wear to read the extract, he says, "Gentleman, you must pardon me. I have grown gray in your service and now find myself growing blind." Washington's gesture defuses the crisis. After he retires from the scene the officers adopt resolutions affirming their loyalty to Congress. March 18, Washington writes Congress an account of the proceedings of the previous days and argues on behalf of the officers' grievances. George Washington to Congress, March 18, 1783

April 18, 1783

Washington's General Orders to the officers and troops of the Continental Army announce the "Cessation of Hostilities between the United States of America and the King of Great Britain." He congratulates the Army, noting that those who have performed the "meanest office" have participated in a great drama "on the stage of human affairs." "Nothing now remains but for the actors of this mighty Scene to preserve a perfect, unvarying, consistency of character through the very last act; to close the Drama with applause; and to retire from the Military Theatre with the same approbation of Angells and men which have crowned all their former vertuous Actions." George Washington, General Orders, April 18, 1783

April 23, 1783

Washington sends Sir Guy Carleton a copy of the proclamation on the cessation of hostilities. He describes the proclamation as having been received by him from the "Sovereign Power of the United States." Carleton has been appointed by the British government to negotiate the cessation of hostilities and the exchange and liberation of prisoners. George Washington to Guy Carleton, April 21, 1783

November 2, 1783

In Washington's Farewell Orders to the Continental Army, he writes that the "disadvantageous circumstances on our part, under which the war was undertaken can never be forgotten." George Washington, Farewell Orders to the Armies of the United States, November 2, 1783

December 4, 1783

Washington formally parts from officers at Fraunces Tavern, New York City. December 23, at Annapolis where Congress is located, Washington submits his resignation of his military commission as commander in chief. His willing resignation of his military powers and his return to private life are considered striking since democratic republics are thought to be especially vulnerable to military dictatorship. Washington becomes as famous for his willingness to relinquish command as for his successful conduct of it in the War.

December 24, 1783

Washington arrives at Mount Vernon. Something of a "celebrity" after the war, Washington receives letters of approbation from England and Europe as well as from people within the newly formed United States. His acknowledgments of these letters and thoughts on his recently acquired fame can be found in Series 2, Letterbook 11 . In this letter to Henry Knox, Washington writes about the heavy burden of correspondence this attention has generated. George Washington to Henry Knox, January 5, 1785

HoW to Write an Essay on the REvolutionary War

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American Revolution: A Resource Guide

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The collections of the Library of Congress contain a wide variety of material associated with the American Revolution era (1763-1783), including manuscripts, broadsides, government documents, books, images, and maps. This guide compiles links to digital materials related to the American Revolution that are available throughout the Library of Congress website. In addition, it provides links to external websites focusing on the American Revolution and a bibliography containing selections for both general and younger readers.

The horse America, throwing his master . 1779. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

Paul Revere, engraver. The bloody massacre perpetrated in King Street Boston on March 5th 1770 by a party of the 29th Regt. 1770. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

N. Currier. Declaration of Independence: July 4th 1776 . [between 1835 and 1856]. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

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American Revolution

American revolution essay questions, colonial america.

1. Investigate and discuss three British attempts to settle in North America in the 16th and early 17th centuries. What challenges did these early settlements encounter?

2. What was the political legacy of the Jamestown settlement and the Mayflower Pilgrims? What ideas did these groups have about politics and government?

3. Explain how British governments encouraged or supported exploration and colonial settlement in North America.

4. Compare and contrast the three colonial regions: New England, the Middle Colonies and the Southern Colonies. How were their societies and economies similar and different?

5. Explain the role of religion in the development of colonial society between the early 1600s and the American Revolution.

6. Colonial American society is sometimes wrongly presented as a mirror of British society. Discuss how life in colonial America was different to life in Britain.

7. Examine the nature of class and power in colonial American society. Which people or groups wielded power and how?

8. Describe everyday life in colonial America. Provide some comparisons between life in large cities, rural settlements and frontier regions.

9. How and why was slavery integrated into colonial American society and economics by the mid 1700s?

10. How were Native American tribes and peoples affected by the settlement of British America between the early 1600s and the mid 1700s?

Catalysts for change

1. Investigate the political participation of colonial Americans before the revolution. To what extent were ordinary people involved in local and provincial government and decision making?

2. Explain how distance shaped the relationship between Great Britain and her American colonies in the 17th and 18th centuries.

3. Referring to specific examples, explain why colonial assemblies sometimes came into dispute or conflict with their royal governors. How were these disputes usually resolved?

4. What was meant by the term ‘salutary neglect’? Explain how this policy worked in real terms, both for Britain and the Americans.

5. The French and Indian War is sometimes described as “a war for control of America”. To what extent was this true? What were the outcomes of this conflict?

6. What was the purpose of the British Royal Proclamation of 1763? Which American colonists were affected by this measure and how did they respond?

7. The British parliament passed two Currency Acts in 1751 and 1764. What restrictions did these acts place on the colonies and who was most affected?

8. “Smuggling” is often cited as a source of tension between Britain and colonial Americans. Define smuggling, explain who engaged in it and discuss how prevalent it was prior to 1764.

9. What are writs of assistance? Referring to specific examples, why did they generate revolutionary sentiment in colonial America?

10. The Sugar Act of 1764 lowered British customs duties on sugar and molasses. Why did it cause unrest among American colonists, particularly the merchant class?

The Stamp Act crisis

1. Focusing on the British government and the problems it faced in 1764, explained why its ministers considered introducing a stamp tax in colonial America.

2. Explain the purpose of a colonial stamp tax, how it would be implemented and which people or groups it would affect.

3. Research and discuss the role of Benjamin Franklin, during the formulation and passing of the Stamp Act.

4. Discuss the opposition to the Stamp Act in Boston in 1765. Which people and groups resisted the Stamp Act? What methods did they use to achieve this?

5. Locate three primary sources, British or American, that contain protests or criticisms of the Stamp Act. Extract and discuss the arguments they use.

6. Discuss attitudes to the Stamp Act within Britain. To what extent was the legislation supported there?

7. Locate three visual sources that contain protests or criticisms of the Stamp Act. Discuss the content of these sources and explain how they use ideas, symbols and tone to encourage opposition to the Stamp Act.

8. Referring to three specific incidents, explain how American colonists used intimidation or violence to protest against the Stamp Act.

9. What are the differences between ‘actual representation’ and ‘virtual representation’? Why did these differences become crucial in the unfolding revolution?

10. Explain why the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766 and the implications this had for relations between Britain and her American colonies.

Townshend duties to the Tea Party

1. Discuss the purposes and content of the Revenue Acts or ‘Townshend duties’ of 1764. What commodities were affected by these duties?

2. How did the American colonists mobilise to resist the Townshend duties? Which groups or classes became involved in this campaign?

3. Summarise the ideas and objections to British policies expressed in John Dickinson’s Letters from a Farmer (1767-68).

4. What ideas were contained in the Massachusetts Circular Letter, written by Samuel Adams in early 1768? What were the consequences of this letter for Anglo-American relations?

5. Referring to specific people or sources, explain colonial objections to the presence of standing armies in American cities.

6. What was the background to the Boston Massacre? Why did violence erupt between Bostonians and British soldiers in March 1770?

7. Using primary and secondary evidence, explain who was more responsible for the Boston Massacre: the Boston mob or the British soldiers?

8. How did Samuel Adams and the Committees of Correspondence contribute to the American Revolution between March 1770 and December 1773?

9. Explain the purpose of the Tea Act of 1773. Which Americans were most affected by this act and how did they respond?

10. Was the Boston Tea Party a protest against British taxation, British trade regulations, or something else?

Coercive Acts to independence

1. Describe the punitive measures implemented in the Coercive Acts. Why did the Americans consider these acts ‘intolerable’?

2. How did the appointment of General Thomas Gage as governor of Massachusetts contribute to a revolutionary situation there?

3. Though not one of the Coercive Acts, the Quebec Act (1774) also generated opposition in America. What were the terms of this act and why did the Americans oppose it?

4. Discuss the content of the Fairfax Resolves and Suffolk Resolves of 1774. What impact did these local resolutions have on the broader revolution?

5. What decisions or resolutions were made by the first Continental Congress in 1774? How did they shape the course of the revolution?

6. What attempts were made to reconcile the American colonies with Great Britain between mid 1774 and July 1776? Which people or groups favoured reconciliation?

7. Referring to specific people, groups and places, explain how the American colonies mobilised for war between mid 1774 and April 1775.

8. What ideas and arguments were advanced in Thomas Paine’s 1776 essay Common Sense ? Discuss the impact of this document.

9. Describe the push for independence within the second Continental Congress. Which groups and people lobbied for a break with Britain?

10. Referring to specific phrases or passages, describe how the Declaration of Independence expressed or reflected Enlightenment values and ideas.

The Revolutionary War

1. In its first months the Continental Army was notorious for its lack of military organisation and poor discipline. How did George Washington and others turn the Continental Army into an effective military force?

2. How did American leaders convince ordinary people to enlist in the Continental Army or state militias and fight in the Revolutionary War?

3. Referring to primary and secondary sources, explain the challenges and problems faced by an ordinary footsoldier in the Continental Army.

4. What occurred at Trenton, New Jersey in late December 1776? Why is this seemingly minor event considered a turning point in the Revolutionary War?

5. Referring to at least two other nations, explain how the American revolutionaries sought the support of foreign nations during the Revolutionary War.

6. Evaluate the importance of the French alliance and support to America’s victory in the Revolutionary War.

7. How successful were the Continental Congress and state governments at supplying the war effort? What obstacles and difficulties did they face?

8. What was the Newburgh conspiracy and why did it threaten government in the new society?

9. What were Britain’s military objectives during the Revolutionary War? Why were British commanders unable to carry out and fulfill these objectives?

10. Investigate attitudes to the American Revolutionary War back in Britain. Did these attitudes change over time and did they have an effect on government policy?

Creating a new nation and society

1. Describe the national government created by the Articles of Confederation in 1781. What were the advantages and disadvantages of this form of government?

2. Why did the new United States find itself in an economic depression during the 1780s? Consider both internal and external factors.

3. How did the new United States government address the challenge of its newly acquired territories west of the Appalachians?

4. Outline the causes of unrest among Massachusetts farmers in 1786. What were their grievances and what action did they take to resolve them?

5. Explain and discuss at least three compromises that were reached during the drafting of the United States Constitution in 1787.

6. How was the issue of slavery addressed – or not addressed – in the United States Constitution?

7. Identify differences between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists in 1787-88. How did their visions for the new United States differ?

8. Focusing on three specific people, discuss the anti-Federalists and their main objections to the proposed Constitution.

9. How did the Federalist movement contribute to the successful ratification of the Constitution in 1787-88?

10. Describe the process that led to the passing of the Bill of Rights. Why was it considered necessary to incorporate these rights into the Constitution?

Evaluating the revolution

1. To what extent was the American Revolution complete by 1789? Did the revolution leave any ‘unfinished business’ or unresolved problems?

2. Why did the American Revolution lack the violence and high death tolls of more recent revolutions?

3. John Adams famously described Americans as being one third in favour of the revolution, one third against it and one third indifferent. How accurate is this claim? How many Americans supported and opposed the revolution, and did this change over time?

4. The United States political system created in 1789 is often depicted as radically different from the British political system. Was this really the case? What British structures or concepts were reflected in American systems of government?

5. Some historians have referred to the United States Constitution as a ‘counter-revolution’. What is the basis for this claim?

6. Describe the global legacy of the American Revolution. How have the political ideology and values of the revolution influenced other governments and societies?

7. To what extent did the American Revolution transform American society?

8. Research and discuss the involvement of Native Americans and African-Americans in the American Revolution.

9. Women participated in the American Revolution as homemakers, protestors or supporters of the army. To what extent did the revolution change or improve the lives of women?

10. How has folklore and myth shaped or distorted our view of the American Revolution? What are the origins of these myths?

Information and resources on this page are © Alpha History 2018-23. Content on this page may not be copied, republished or redistributed without the express permission of Alpha History. For more information please refer to our Terms of Use .

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American Revolution Example

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Published: Mar 19, 2024

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Causes of the american revolution, events leading to the american revolution, the declaration of independence, the war and victory, consequences of the american revolution, in conclusion.

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To american revolutionaries, patriotism meant fair dealing with one another.

A 1782 engraving depicts the First Continental Congress, held in 1774. François Godefroy engraving from Library of Congress

When modern Americans call themselves patriots, they are evoking a sentiment that is 250 years old.

In September 1774, nearly two years before the Declaration of Independence, delegates from 12 of the 13 Colonies gathered in the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. They quickly hammered out a political, economic and cultural program to unify the so-called “Patriot” movement against British rule.

As a Smithsonian curator who studies American identity , I explore the often forgotten ways that the First Continental Congress mobilized an unprecedented number of Colonists behind shared commitments. Most important, perhaps, they established critical terms by which contemporaries measured patriotism – and identified nonpatriots – through the early years of revolution.

The delegates met to address an immediate crisis. Great Britain’s Parliament had recently imposed a series of measures explicitly meant to punish the Colonies for the Boston Tea Party’s destruction of tea in Boston Harbor.

The so-called Intolerable Acts forcibly closed the port of Boston , radically curtailed the representative branches of the Massachusetts government and provided for quartering of troops in any of the Colonies without consent from their legislatures.

Taken together, these measures “ threaten Destruction to the Lives, Liberty, and Property, of his Majesty’s Subjects in North America ,” wrote the delegates to the Congress. They rapidly proposed “the most speedy, effectual, and peaceable Measure” they could imagine to counter the British punishments – a “Non-importation, Non-consumption, and Non-exportation Agreement,” called the “ Continental Association .”

They built the association on earlier efforts to limit trade with Britain, adopted by various Colonies or seaport towns. Now the Congress went further, promulgating a sweeping trade boycott for all 13 Colonies to join at once and urging every supporter of Colonial rights from New Hampshire to Georgia to accept its restrictions.

New economic connections

The Continental Association called for American merchants to end all importation of British manufactured goods and for American consumers to refuse to purchase such items, starting on Dec. 1, 1774.

There would be no more fine silks, Irish linens or Indian cottons; no fashionable accoutrements, such as decorative ribbons and lace, parasols or fans. Americans would not purchase European paints, hardware or furnishings; no West Indies molasses or coffee; nor, of course, East India tea. Importing such goods had left the Colonies in debt .

The agreement also banned occasions associated with luxury consumption, such as theatergoing, assemblies and balls, horse races and other expensive entertainments. It even changed funeral rituals by banning imported mourning clothes and the costly silk gloves that the bereaved commonly presented to mourners at these ceremonies.

Equally important, the Continental Association encouraged household production within the Colonies to supplant goods previously bought from Britain. It discouraged consumption of lamb, as a measure to increase stocks of wool for Colonial cloth-making. It relied on urban mechanics and farm households – women as well as men – to increase their manufacturing to replace other English goods now forbidden.

The idea was to create new networks of trade within the Colonies, replacing Colonists’ dependence on Britain with mutual interdependence. Prosperous consumers would now patronize their producing neighbors – putting money into those neighbors’ pockets – by purchasing homespun cloth, herbal teas and other items that were American-made. Finally, the Continental Association forbade dealers from raising prices on English goods as they became scarce.

The Continental Association made the terms of so-called “Patriot” behavior clear: A supporter of American rights would give up British imports, promote American-made goods and forgo undue profits in business.

Those who violated the terms of the pact would be labeled “foes to the rights of British America.”

Mobilization

Even as the Congress adjourned, supporters of the proposed program took action. Voters in towns, counties and seaports began electing committees to enforce the Continental Association.

To ensure community solidarity, some localities chose political nobodies to serve alongside established leaders. Ordinary men and even women who, as widows, were sometimes heads of households began signing on to written copies of the agreement.

From Dec. 1, 1774, the new rules of trade created a public panorama of economic and political actions in marketplaces, on seaport wharves and in meetings held in courthouses, meeting houses and taverns. Committeemen inspected merchant warehouses for banned goods and questioned suspected violators of the pact. They published the names of the unrepentant in the public newspapers – often labeled as a sign for “friends of their country” to end all dealings with those violators, now identified as “enemies” to American liberty.

Over the following months, newspapers printed reports of committee decisions, as well as rumors, accusations, apologies and accounts of crowds that confronted recalcitrant dealers or unreformed drinkers of tea.

Colonial readers learned such things as these: A public meeting in Gloucester County, Pennsylvania, called for enforcing the association as if it were “enacted into law.” A merchant named John Armstrong in Isle of Wight, Virginia, regretted violating the association and now promised to reform. Blacksmiths in Worcester, Massachusetts, pledged not to perform work for non-associators. Women in Hartford, Connecticut, gathered to spin thread for weavers to turn into cloth for the poor. A tea dealer in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, apologized for hawking tea and even publicly burned his tea supply. An alderman of Philadelphia had been buried in the plainest of funerals – conducted in strict accord with requirements of the Continental Association.

Since editors routinely reprinted news from other papers, readers could observe their fellow patriots at work even in Colonies far away. Readers in, say, the Carolinas could feel a solidarity with like-minded Colonists in New Hampshire or New York.

‘One people’

The cumulative effect of this broad public mobilization appears, I believe, in the very first sentence of the Declaration of Independence. In July 1776, the Second Continental Congress described inhabitants of the 13 Colonies as “ one people ,” fully capable of asserting independence from “another” people – those Britons across the Atlantic.

Barbara Clark Smith , Curator, Division of Political History, Smithsonian Institution

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article .

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American Revolutionary War: Causes and Outcomes Essay

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1. The sociopolitical climate in England in the 1760’s was marked by general conservatism. The 1600’s had been a time of great turmoil and upheaval in England.

The country had faced a bloody civil war, the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, religious battles between Protestants and Catholics, and finally the Glorious Revolution. As a result of this turmoil, the English ruling class was generally intolerant of any type of religious or political innovation.

The Anglican Church of England dominated English life, and other Protestant denominations were forced to pay taxes to subsidize the Anglicans (Middlekauff, 1982). Of course, Catholics and Jews fared even worse, and were denied basic political rights.

Unlike other European nations, England had mixed government as opposed to an absolute monarchy. However, most members of the House of Commons were more concerned about obtaining offices for themselves than about public policy.

The King selected his ministers and usually was able to implement his policies. Most English political leaders spent little time thinking about their American colonies, but naturally assumed that the colonies were subordinate to the mother country.

By the 1760’s England had become the most powerful country in Europe, and its leaders were more concerned about its rivalry with France than about the colonies.

In contrast, the American colonies were generally more tolerant of other religions. The colonies had been settled by people looking for the freedom to practice their religion. They had left Europe to escape religious persecution, and reacted angrily to what they perceived were affronts to their rights.

While most colonies did have an official religion, members of other religions were treated better than in England. Due to the great distance between England and North America, the colonies were largely self-governing.

The colonists did think of themselves as Englishmen, but believed that they would be left to govern themselves. To the colonists, this right of self-government was a basic English right.

Immigrants from other European countries poured into the colonies throughout the 18 th century, and they added to the somewhat rebellious character of the colonies. The Scotch-Irish were probably the largest immigrant group.

They were Presbyterians who had been barred from holding office in Ireland (Middlekauff, 1982). Many German Protestants also came to the colonies. Some Dutch, Swedish, and Scottish immigrants came as well. Of course, the largest “immigrant” group consisted of the African slaves, who obviously did not come willingly.

These immigrants helped create enormous population growth in the colonies (Brown, 2000). They also contributed to the growth of the American economy. Although there were many poor people in the colonies, there was likely not as much of a gap between the rich and the poor as there was in England.

Of course, there were many differences among the 13 colonies. The coastal cities seem to have had more social stratification than the backcountry. There were many wealthy plantation owners, but most colonists in the backcountry were middling farmers.

The cities contained many wealthy merchants, as well as large numbers of the urban poor. Slavery existed in all the colonies in the 1760’s, but had become more prevalent in the South by that point. In general, the colonists thought of themselves as Englishmen first, and then as residents of their colony.

There was little sense of a unified colonial identity. This only started in change during the 1760’s, as the colonists saw the English government imposing indignities on all the colonies.

2. Following the French and Indian War, England faced the task of paying off its large national debt. Fighting a war thousands of miles away in North America was extremely expensive.

Winning the war actually added to England’s costs. England gained the colony of Canada from France after the war, but the loyalty of the largely French-speaking Canadian colonists to England was doubtful. England also felt the need to protect the 13 colonies from Indians in its newly acquired Western territories (and often to protect the Indians from the colonists).

As a result, the British House of Commons decided to maintain a standing army in North America. Englishmen had normally been wary of standing armies, but there was surprisingly little though about how the colonists would react. This may have been the first sign that Parliament regarded the colonists as something less than full Englishmen.

Of course, maintaining a standing army is also expensive. The English government recognized that keeping a standing army in North America would benefit the entire British Empire, and England actually planned to pay most of the costs (Middlekauff, 1982).

Since the troops were supposedly being kept in North America for the colonists’ benefit, though, the ministry believed that the colonists should pay a portion of the costs.

Because of this, the House of Commons imposed taxes on molasses and stamps in the colonies. The taxes on stamps were later repealed, but eventually replaced with new taxes on tea.

The colonists vehemently objected to all the taxes, and claimed that Parliament had no right to impose taxes on the colonies since the colonists were not represented in the House of Commons.

The colonists admitted that England had the right to receive tax revenue from the colonies, but they claimed that the taxes needed to be imposed by the colonial legislatures themselves.

At the time in England, the prevailing idea was that taxes were a “gift” from the people to the King. Since they were a “gift,” they could only be imposed by the people themselves in the House of Commons (Middlekauff, 1982).

The British economic problems could only have been avoided with a less bellicose foreign policy. At the time, the British and the French were battling to gain as many colonies as possible. Besides the prestige involved, both countries believed that trade with colonies would make their countries more prosperous.

Even if this was true, fighting wars to gain new colonies was expensive enough to cancel out any economic gains. Imposing taxes to pay for the costs only angered the colonists, which required more troops in the colonies to keep the peace.

The political fallout in the 13 colonies was largely the result of the arrogant attitude of British officials. They looked at the colonists as wayward children rather than as fellow Englishmen.

When the colonists objected to the Stamp Act, the British government refused to even listen to the colonists’ arguments about representation. By the 1770’s, King George III believed that England always had to maintain at least one tax on the colonists simply to “keep up the right” (Middlekauff, 1982).

The taxes only angered the colonists, and many colonists decided to no longer purchase British goods. Forgetting about the taxes and simply continuing an active trade with the colonies would probably have generated more revenue for England.

The government was more flexible with its new Canadian colony, likely because it did not take Canada’s loyalty for granted. The British respected the language and Catholic faith of French-Canadians.

3. The colonists reacted furiously to British taxes in the 1760’s and 1770’s. When the Stamp Act was passed in 1765, several colonial legislatures passed resolutions claiming that the House of Commons had no right to impose taxes on the colonies. Riots broke out in the colonies over the taxes, and the homes of several British officials were burned down.

The colonial reaction only stiffened Parliament’s resolve. Supporters of the taxes claimed that the colonists were “virtually” represented in Parliament. The Stamp Act was eventually repealed, but only on the grounds that the tax was inexpedient.

At the same time, a Declaratory Act was passed stating that Parliament had the right to bind the colonies “in all cases whatsoever (Middlekauff, 1982). The Townshend Acts were passed later to impose new taxes and punish the colonists for their defiance.

The Townshend Acts imposed taxes on tea, and used the revenue to pay the salaries of colonial officials to assert control over them. The Acts also suspended the New York colonial legislature until it agreed to quarter British troops.

Colonial resistance only increased in response to the Townshend Acts. Many colonists started boycotting British goods. More riots broke out in Boston, and British troops were eventually sent in to occupy the city and enforce the Townshend Acts.

Continued unrest eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre in 1770 (Brown, 2000). Most of the Townshend Acts were eventually repealed, but the tax on tea remained so Parliament could “keep up the right” to tax the colonies.

This tax was the motivation for the Boston Tea Party in 1773. Parliament reacted to the Boston Tea Party by closing Boston’s port and bringing the government of Massachusetts under British control with the Coercive Acts.

By this point, the political break between Great Britain and the 13 colonies was nearly complete. The colonists called for the First Continental Congress in 1774 in response to the Coercive Acts. At the Congress, colonial representatives agreed to boycott British goods and to support Massachusetts in case of British attack.

The battles at Lexington and Concord the following year completed the break, and marked the start of the Revolutionary War.

The main grievance of the colonists – taxation without representation – was legitimate. The fact that the colonists made this argument shows that they initially considered themselves to be Englishmen, with all the rights of Englishmen.

The British reaction to the protests demonstrates that they looked at the colonists as children in need of punishment rather than as fellow Englishmen. Even after repealing some of the taxes, the British imposed new taxes simply to assert their authority over the colonists.

The Townshend Acts were one of the main turning points in the crisis. The Stamp Act had already been repealed, and the controversy in the colonies was dying down. The Townshend Acts reignited the debate. Beyond the tea tax, the suspension of the New York colonial legislature showed that England had little respect for the colonists’ political rights.

Of course, it is impossible to defend all the actions of the colonists. In retrospect, rioting, burning down houses, and tarring and feathering British officials cannot be condoned.

However, most of the violence only happened after the British government completely dismissed colonial protests over the taxes. The occupation of Boston by British troops only served to further provoke the colonists, and set the stage for the American Revolution.

4. The main argument in the Declaration of Independence was that Great Britain had denied the colonists their natural rights. It argued that Britain and the colonies had a fundamental understanding defining their relationship, and that Britain had violated that understanding (Middlekauff, 1982).

Not only had Parliament imposed taxes on the colonies without their consent, but it had also disbanded colonial legislative bodies and brought colonial officials under its control. The Declaration of Independence stressed these repeated injuries, and argued that these acts had broken the political chains between Great Britain and the colonies.

The Declaration of Independence also emphasized the colonists’ repeated attempts to seek the peaceful redress of their protests. Delegates at the Second Continental Congress knew that declaring independence was a controversial step. Right up to July 1776, many supporters of the colonial cause were uneasy about taking this final step.

The Declaration of Independence lists these petitions for redress, and discusses how they were brutally rejected by King George III and his ministers. Instead of listening to the colonists’ views, the King had sent troops – including foreign Hessians – to North America to crush the colonists.

As a result of these repeated injuries, Great Britain had violated the unwritten contract between the mother country and the colonies. Therefore, the Declaration of Independence argued that the colonists were justified in taking the extraordinary step of renouncing allegiance to the British crown.

Of course, the most well-known phrase in the Declaration of Independence is the assertion that “all men are created equal.” Even at the time, many Britons mocked the idea of slaveholding colonists claiming that all men were created equal. Today, the hypocrisy of the statement is obvious.

In the colonists’ defense, many of them were also uncomfortable with the contradiction. In the original draft of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson unconvincingly attempted to blame King George III for the expansion of the slave trade to North America (Middlekauff, 1982).

The Second Continental Congress though it best to avoid the subject altogether, and deleted the references to the slave trade. This acceptance of slavery is the most obvious way that the United States failed to live up to the ideals in the Declaration of Independence.

However, it should be noted that the United States in 1776 did live up to the ideals in the Declaration of Independence in many ways. The colonists were fighting for the right of people to be governed by their own chosen representatives.

Great Britain viewed the colonists as subordinate to the mother country, and claimed that it had the right to bind the colonies in all cases. Also, while there were obviously great disparities in wealth in the colonies, the United States had no formal aristocracy. In these ways, the United States already lived up to the ideal of all men being created equal.

The Declaration of Independence was obviously a revolutionary document, but in some ways it was merely a re-assertion of rights already existing in the English constitution. The right to choose one’s own representatives was a uniquely English right.

The idea that taxes were the “free gift” of the people to the King was also an English concept. The colonists thought that Great Britain had grown corrupt and decadent and had forgotten these ideas. In the colonists’ view, declaring independence from Great Britain was the only way they could maintain these English principles.

5. American troops fought the Revolutionary War in an untraditional manner. Traditional European military ideas called for large armies to meet one other in battle head-on. However, General Washington knew that the Americans were severely outnumbered and lacking in military expertise.

Fighting the Revolutionary War in a traditional manner would have been disastrous. Meeting the British army in massive battles would have resulted in the destruction of the American army.

As a result, Washington fought what he called a “war of posts” (Middlekauff, 1982). This strategy called for a defensive approach. The Americans sought to hold on to territory that they already held. Early in the war, though, the Americans made little effort to recapture territory that they had lost (such as New York).

Instead of battling to retake New York City, Washington concentrated on withdrawing his troops successfully so that they could live to fight another day. This was for several reasons. Washington obviously realized that the raw, untrained American troops could not defeat the British army alone.

However, he believed time was on his side. More time would allow him to train his troops. He also knew that the British were operating on the Americans’ territory. To win the war, Great Britain had to crush the rebellion and destroy the American armies. On the other hand, the Americans merely had to stay alive to continue the war.

While the American troops used a largely defensive strategy, Washington was perfectly willing to take the offensive when his troops had the advantage of surprise. At the Battle of Trenton, American troops crossed the Delaware River and caught Hessian troops by surprise.

This victory inspired the Americans when it appeared that the war might be lost. Washington also sought to react quickly to British campaigns. At Saratoga, the British campaign failed, and the Americans captured British General John Burgoyne.

The Battle of Saratoga was a key turning point in the Revolutionary War, since it persuaded France to enter the war on the side of the Americans. It is possible that America would not have won the war without French support. At the very least, the war would have dragged on for many more years.

Obtaining the support of France was part of American strategy, though. This was one reason for Washington’s defensive posture early in the war. The Americans realized that Britain and France were ancient enemies, and that France was eager to avenge its defeat in the Seven Years War.

At the same time, the French did not want to support a hopeless rebellion. Washington realized that France would be more likely to enter the conflict as the war dragged on, so he sought to avoid early crushing defeats.

He also knew that if France entered the war, the British would be likely to focus less on America and more on French colonial possessions, such as the French West Indies.

Once France entered the war on the side of the Americans, the two sides were relatively equal in strength. At this point, the Americans adopted a more aggressive military strategy. By 1781, the Americans (along with French troops) were able to march to Yorktown and confront British troops head-on.

The Battle of Yorktown clinched America’s victory in the Revolutionary War. In the final analysis, though, American success was based more on Washington’s strategic adaptability than on any particular battle. Washington avoided overconfidence early in the war when things looked bleak, and became more aggressive once the odds were on his side.

Brown, R. (2000). Major Problems in the Era of the American Revolution, 1760-1791 . Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Middlekauff, R. (1982). The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789 . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

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