research question abstract

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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Home » Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

• Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
• Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
• Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
• Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
• Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

• Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
• Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
• Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
• Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
• Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
• Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

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How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper | Examples

What is a research paper abstract?

Research paper abstracts summarize your study quickly and succinctly to journal editors and researchers and prompt them to read further. But with the ubiquity of online publication databases, writing a compelling abstract is even more important today than it was in the days of bound paper manuscripts.

Abstracts exist to “sell”  your work, and they could thus be compared to the “executive summary” of a business resume: an official briefing on what is most important about your research. Or the “gist” of your research. With the majority of academic transactions being conducted online, this means that you have even less time to impress readers–and increased competition in terms of other abstracts out there to read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) notes that there are  12 questions or “points” considered in the selection process  for journals and conferences and stresses the importance of having an abstract that ticks all of these boxes. Because it is often the ONLY chance you have to convince readers to keep reading, it is important that you spend time and energy crafting an abstract that faithfully represents the central parts of your study and captivates your audience.

With that in mind, follow these suggestions when structuring and writing your abstract, and learn how exactly to put these ideas into a solid abstract that will captivate your target readers.

Before Writing Your Abstract

How long should an abstract be.

All abstracts are written with the same essential objective: to give a summary of your study. But there are two basic styles of abstract: descriptive and informative . Here is a brief delineation of the two:

Of the two types of abstracts, informative abstracts are much more common, and they are widely used for submission to journals and conferences. Informative abstracts apply to lengthier and more technical research and are common in the sciences, engineering, and psychology, while descriptive abstracts are more likely used in humanities and social science papers. The best method of determining which abstract type you need to use is to follow the instructions for journal submissions and to read as many other published articles in those journals as possible.

Research Abstract Guidelines and Requirements

As any article about research writing will tell you, authors must always closely follow the specific guidelines and requirements indicated in the Guide for Authors section of their target journal’s website. The same kind of adherence to conventions should be applied to journal publications, for consideration at a conference, and even when completing a class assignment.

Each publisher has particular demands when it comes to formatting and structure. Here are some common questions addressed in the journal guidelines:

• Is there a maximum or minimum word/character length?
• What are the style and formatting requirements?
• What is the appropriate abstract type?
• Are there any specific content or organization rules that apply?

There are of course other rules to consider when composing a research paper abstract. But if you follow the stated rules the first time you submit your manuscript, you can avoid your work being thrown in the “circular file” right off the bat.

Identify Your Target Readership

The main purpose of your abstract is to lead researchers to the full text of your research paper. In scientific journals, abstracts let readers decide whether the research discussed is relevant to their own interests or study. Abstracts also help readers understand your main argument quickly. Consider these questions as you write your abstract:

• Are other academics in your field the main target of your study?
• Will your study perhaps be useful to members of the general public?
• Do your study results include the wider implications presented in the abstract?

Outlining and Writing Your Abstract

What to include in an abstract.

Just as your  research paper title  should cover as much ground as possible in a few short words, your abstract must cover  all  parts of your study in order to fully explain your paper and research. Because it must accomplish this task in the space of only a few hundred words, it is important not to include ambiguous references or phrases that will confuse the reader or mislead them about the content and objectives of your research. Follow these  dos  and  don’ts  when it comes to what kind of writing to include:

• Avoid acronyms or abbreviations since these will need to be explained in order to make sense to the reader, which takes up valuable abstract space. Instead, explain these terms in the Introduction section of the main text.
• Only use references to people or other works if they are well-known. Otherwise, avoid referencing anything outside of your study in the abstract.
• Never include tables, figures, sources, or long quotations in your abstract; you will have plenty of time to present and refer to these in the body of your paper.

Use keywords in your abstract to focus your topic

A vital search tool is the research paper keywords section, which lists the most relevant terms directly underneath the abstract. Think of these keywords as the “tubes” that readers will seek and enter—via queries on databases and search engines—to ultimately land at their destination, which is your paper. Your abstract keywords should thus be words that are commonly used in searches but should also be highly relevant to your work and found in the text of your abstract. Include 5 to 10 important words or short phrases central to your research in both the abstract and the keywords section.

For example, if you are writing a paper on the prevalence of obesity among lower classes that crosses international boundaries, you should include terms like “obesity,” “prevalence,” “international,” “lower classes,” and “cross-cultural.” These are terms that should net a wide array of people interested in your topic of study. Look at our nine rules for choosing keywords for your research paper if you need more input on this.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

As mentioned above, the abstract (especially the informative abstract) acts as a surrogate or synopsis of your research paper, doing almost as much work as the thousands of words that follow it in the body of the main text. In the hard sciences and most social sciences, the abstract includes the following sections and organizational schema.

Each section is quite compact—only a single sentence or two, although there is room for expansion if one element or statement is particularly interesting or compelling. As the abstract is almost always one long paragraph, the individual sections should naturally merge into one another to create a holistic effect. Use the following as a checklist to ensure that you have included all of the necessary content in your abstract.

1) Identify your purpose and motivation

So your research is about rabies in Brazilian squirrels. Why is this important? You should start your abstract by explaining why people should care about this study—why is it significant to your field and perhaps to the wider world? And what is the exact purpose of your study; what are you trying to achieve? Start by answering the following questions:

• What made you decide to do this study or project?
• Why is this study important to your field or to the lay reader?
• Why should someone read your entire article?

In summary, the first section of your abstract should include the importance of the research and its impact on related research fields or on the wider scientific domain.

2) Explain the research problem you are addressing

Stating the research problem that your study addresses is the corollary to why your specific study is important and necessary. For instance, even if the issue of “rabies in Brazilian squirrels” is important, what is the problem—the “missing piece of the puzzle”—that your study helps resolve?

You can combine the problem with the motivation section, but from a perspective of organization and clarity, it is best to separate the two. Here are some precise questions to address:

• What is your research trying to better understand or what problem is it trying to solve?
• What is the scope of your study—does it try to explain something general or specific?
• What is your central claim or argument?

3) Discuss your research approach

Your specific study approach is detailed in the Methods and Materials section .  You have already established the importance of the research, your motivation for studying this issue, and the specific problem your paper addresses. Now you need to discuss  how  you solved or made progress on this problem—how you conducted your research. If your study includes your own work or that of your team, describe that here. If in your paper you reviewed the work of others, explain this here. Did you use analytic models? A simulation? A double-blind study? A case study? You are basically showing the reader the internal engine of your research machine and how it functioned in the study. Be sure to:

• Detail your research—include methods/type of the study, your variables, and the extent of the work
• Briefly present evidence to support your claim
• Highlight your most important sources

4) Briefly summarize your results

Here you will give an overview of the outcome of your study. Avoid using too many vague qualitative terms (e.g, “very,” “small,” or “tremendous”) and try to use at least some quantitative terms (i.e., percentages, figures, numbers). Save your qualitative language for the conclusion statement. Answer questions like these:

• What did your study yield in concrete terms (e.g., trends, figures, correlation between phenomena)?
• How did your results compare to your hypothesis? Was the study successful?
• Where there any highly unexpected outcomes or were they all largely predicted?

5) State your conclusion

In the last section of your abstract, you will give a statement about the implications and  limitations of the study . Be sure to connect this statement closely to your results and not the area of study in general. Are the results of this study going to shake up the scientific world? Will they impact how people see “Brazilian squirrels”? Or are the implications minor? Try not to boast about your study or present its impact as  too  far-reaching, as researchers and journals will tend to be skeptical of bold claims in scientific papers. Answer one of these questions:

• What are the exact effects of these results on my field? On the wider world?
• What other kind of study would yield further solutions to problems?
• What other information is needed to expand knowledge in this area?

After Completing the First Draft of Your Abstract

Revise your abstract.

The abstract, like any piece of academic writing, should be revised before being considered complete. Check it for  grammatical and spelling errors  and make sure it is formatted properly.

Get feedback from a peer

Getting a fresh set of eyes to review your abstract is a great way to find out whether you’ve summarized your research well. Find a reader who understands research papers but is not an expert in this field or is not affiliated with your study. Ask your reader to summarize what your study is about (including all key points of each section). This should tell you if you have communicated your key points clearly.

In addition to research peers, consider consulting with a professor or even a specialist or generalist writing center consultant about your abstract. Use any resource that helps you see your work from another perspective.

Consider getting professional editing and proofreading

While peer feedback is quite important to ensure the effectiveness of your abstract content, it may be a good idea to find an academic editor  to fix mistakes in grammar, spelling, mechanics, style, or formatting. The presence of basic errors in the abstract may not affect your content, but it might dissuade someone from reading your entire study. Wordvice provides English editing services that both correct objective errors and enhance the readability and impact of your work.

Additional Abstract Rules and Guidelines

Write your abstract after completing your paper.

Although the abstract goes at the beginning of your manuscript, it does not merely introduce your research topic (that is the job of the title), but rather summarizes your entire paper. Writing the abstract last will ensure that it is complete and consistent with the findings and statements in your paper.

Keep your content in the correct order

Both questions and answers should be organized in a standard and familiar way to make the content easier for readers to absorb. Ideally, it should mimic the overall format of your essay and the classic “introduction,” “body,” and “conclusion” form, even if the parts are not neatly divided as such.

Write the abstract from scratch

Because the abstract is a self-contained piece of writing viewed separately from the body of the paper, you should write it separately as well. Never copy and paste direct quotes from the paper and avoid paraphrasing sentences in the paper. Using new vocabulary and phrases will keep your abstract interesting and free of redundancies while conserving space.

Don’t include too many details in the abstract

Again, the density of your abstract makes it incompatible with including specific points other than possibly names or locations. You can make references to terms, but do not explain or define them in the abstract. Try to strike a balance between being specific to your study and presenting a relatively broad overview of your work.

Wordvice Resources

If you think your abstract is fine now but you need input on abstract writing or require English editing services (including paper editing ), then head over to the Wordvice academic resources page, where you will find many more articles, for example on writing the Results , Methods , and Discussion sections of your manuscript, on choosing a title for your paper , or on how to finalize your journal submission with a strong cover letter .    

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• How to Write an Abstract

Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

• CONSORT for randomized trials.
• STROBE for observational studies
• PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

• Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
• Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
• Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
• Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
• Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
• Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
• Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

Don’t

• Sensationalize your research.
• Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
• Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
• Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
• Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
• Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
• Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
• How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

How to craft an APA abstract

Last updated

16 December 2023

Reviewed by

An APA abstract is a brief but thorough summary of a scientific paper. It gives readers a clear overview of what the paper is about and what it intends to prove.

The purpose of an abstract is to allow researchers to quickly understand the paper's topic and purpose so they can decide whether it will be useful to them.

• What is the APA style?

APA style is a method of formatting and documentation used by the American Psychological Association. This style is used primarily for papers in the field of education and in the social sciences, including:

Anthropology

What is an abstract in APA format?

Writing an abstract in APA format requires you to conform to the writing rules for APA-style papers, including the following guidelines:

The abstract should be 150–250 words

It should be brief but concise, containing all the paper's main points

The abstract is a separate page that comes after the title page and before the paper's main content

• Key elements of an APA abstract 

While the rules for constructing an APA abstract are straightforward, the process can be challenging. You need to pack a great deal of relevant content into a short piece.

The essential elements of an APA abstract are:

Running header containing the title of the paper and page number

Section label, centered and in bold, containing the word "abstract"

The main content of the abstract, 150–250 words in length and double-spaced

A list of keywords, indented and introduced with the word "keywords" in italics

Essential points to cover in an APA abstract  

When you’re creating your APA abstract, consider the following questions.

What is the main topic the paper is addressing?

People searching for research on your topic will probably be browsing many papers and studies. The way your abstract is crafted will help to determine whether they feel your paper is worth reading.

Are your research methods quantitative or qualitative?

Quantitative research is focused on numbers and statistics, typically gathered from studies and polls where the questions are in yes/no or multiple-choice format.

Qualitative research is based on language and gathered using methods such as interviews and focus groups. It is more detailed and time-consuming to gather than quantitative research but can yield more complex and nuanced results.

Did you use primary or secondary sources?

Another key element is whether your research is based on primary or secondary sources. 

Primary research is data that you or your research team gathered. Secondary research is gathered from existing sources, such as databases or previously published studies.

Is your research descriptive or experimental?

Your research may be descriptive, experimental, or both.

With descriptive research , you’re describing or analyzing existing studies or theories on the topic. You may be using surveys, case studies, or observation to study the topic.

Experimental research studies variables using the scientific method. With an experiment, your objective is to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables (or show the lack of one).

What conclusion did you reach?

Readers will want to know upfront what your paper is claiming or proving. Your APA abstract should give them a condensed version of your conclusions. Summarize your most significant findings.

It's customary to place your findings and conclusion in the final sentence of the abstract. This should be directly related to the main topic of the paper.

What is the relevance of your findings?

Show readers that your paper is a significant contribution to the field. While staying accurate and not overstating your case, boast a bit about why people need to read your paper.

Briefly describe the implications and importance of your findings. You can also point out any further research that is needed concerning this topic.

Did you choose the most appropriate keywords?

Including keywords is useful for indexing if your paper is eventually included in a database. Choose keywords that are relevant to the paper and as specific as possible.

For example, if your paper is about signs of learning disabilities in elementary-age children, your keyword list might include:

Learning disability symptoms

Elementary education

Language-based learning disabilities

Any other terms discussed in the paper

• How to format an APA abstract

Use standard APA formatting with double spacing, 12pt Times New Roman font, and one-inch margins.

Place a running head at the top left-hand side of the page. This is an abbreviated version of the paper's title. Use all capital letters for the running header. This is not usually required for academic papers but is essential if you are submitting the paper for publication. The page number “2” should follow the running header (Page 1 is the title page).

Just under the running head, in the center, place the word "abstract."

Place your list of keywords at the end. The list should be indented and, according to APA guidelines, contain three to five keywords.

• What are the 3 types of abstracts?

There are certain variations in different types of APA abstracts. Here are three of the most common ones.

Experimental or lab report abstracts

An abstract for an experimental or lab report needs to communicate the key purpose and findings of the experiment. Include the following:

Purpose and importance of the experiment

Hypothesis of the experiment

Methods used to test the hypothesis

Summary of the results of the experiment, including whether you proved or rejected the hypothesis

Literature review abstracts

A literature review is a survey of published work on a work of literature. It may be part of a thesis, dissertation, or research paper .

The abstract for a literature review should contain:

A description of your purpose for covering the research topic

Your thesis statement

A description of the sources used in the review

Your conclusions based on the findings

Psychology lab reports

Psychology lab reports are part of the experiment report category. Psychology experiments, however, may contain distinctive elements.

Describe the goal or purpose of the experiment

If the experiment includes human subjects, describe them. Mention the number of participants and what demographic they fit

Describe any tools, equipment, or apparatus you used for the experiment. For example, some experiments use electroencephalography (EEG) to measure brain waves. You may have also used tools such as questionnaires , case studies , or naturalistic observation. Describe the procedure and parameters of the experiment.

Summarize your conclusions

• What not to include in an APA abstract

As this section is 250 words maximum, it's important to know what should not be included.

Avoid the following in an APA abstract:

Jargon, acronyms, or abbreviations

Citations. These should appear in the body of the paper.

Lengthy or secondary information. Keep it brief and stick to the main points. Readers should want to read your paper for more detailed information.

Opinions or subjective comments

Anything not covered in the paper

• Guidelines for writing an APA abstract

While an abstract is the shortest section of your paper, it is nevertheless one of the most important parts. It determines whether or not someone decides that the paper is worth reading or not. What follows are some guidelines to keep in mind when creating your APA abstract. 

Focus on your main point. Don't try to fit in multiple conclusions. The idea is to give readers a clear idea of what your main point or conclusion is. On a similar note, be explicit about the implications and significance of your findings. This is what will motivate people to read your paper.

Write the abstract last. Ensure the abstract accurately conveys the content and conclusions of your paper. You may want to start with a rough draft of the abstract, which you can use as an outline to guide you when writing your paper. If you do this, make sure you edit and update the abstract after the full paper is complete.

Proofread your abstract. As the abstract is short and the first part of the paper people will read, it's especially important to make it clear and free of spelling, grammatical, or factual errors. Ask someone in your field to read through it.

Write the abstract for a general audience. While the paper may be aimed at academics, scientists, or specialists in your field, the abstract should be accessible to a broad audience. Minimize jargon and acronyms. This will make the paper easier to find by people looking for information on the topic.

Choose your keywords with care. The more relevant keywords you include, the more searchable your paper will be. Look up papers on comparable topics for guidance.

Follow any specific guidelines that apply to your paper. Requirements for the abstract may differ slightly depending on the topic or guidelines set by a particular instructor or publication.

APA style is commonly used in the fields of psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and education.

If you’re writing an abstract in APA style, there are certain conventions to follow. Your readers and people in your industry will expect you to adhere to particular elements of layout, content, and structure.

Follow our advice in this article, and you will be confident that your APA abstract complies with the expected standards and will encourage people to read your full paper.

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Writing an abstract - a six point checklist (with samples)

Posted in: abstract , dissertations

The abstract is a vital part of any research paper. It is the shop front for your work, and the first stop for your reader. It should provide a clear and succinct summary of your study, and encourage your readers to read more. An effective abstract, therefore should answer the following questions:

• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?

So here's our run down of the key elements of a well-written abstract.

• Size - A succinct and well written abstract should be between approximately 100- 250 words.
• Background - An effective abstract usually includes some scene-setting information which might include what is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question (a few short sentences).
• Purpose  - The abstract should also set out the purpose of your research, in other words, what is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present).
• Methods - The methods section should contain enough information to enable the reader to understand what was done, and how. It should include brief details of the research design, sample size, duration of study, and so on.
• Results - The results section is the most important part of the abstract. This is because readers who skim an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. The results section should therefore contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits.
• Conclusion - This section should contain the most important take-home message of the study, expressed in a few precisely worded sentences. Usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcomes of the study. However, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned. It is also customary, but not essential, to express an opinion about the theoretical or practical implications of the findings, or the importance of their findings for the field. Thus, the conclusions may contain three elements:
• The primary take-home message.
• Any additional findings of importance.
• Implications for future studies.

Example Abstract 2: Engineering Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone.

Abstract from: Dalstra, M., Huiskes, R. and Van Erning, L., 1995. Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone. Journal of biomechanical engineering, 117(3), pp.272-278.

And finally...  A word on abstract types and styles

Abstract types can differ according to subject discipline. You need to determine therefore which type of abstract you should include with your paper. Here are two of the most common types with examples.

Informative Abstract

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgements about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarised. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.

Adapted from Andrade C. How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation. Indian J Psychiatry. 2011 Apr;53(2):172-5. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.82558. PMID: 21772657; PMCID: PMC3136027 .

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• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

• Less complex than the main question
• Focused only on 1 type of research
• Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

• Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
• Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
• Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
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See an example

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 21). Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved July 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-questions/

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Writing an Abstract: Why and How, with Expert Tips for Researchers

An abstract is a short summary of your research manuscript, typically around 200–250 words, briefly presenting why and how you did your study, and what you found. That’s a simple definition, but the structure and style of an abstract are where there are certain rules to follow.

Even more, you’ll increase your chances of publication and of getting cited when you know what to do and not do. That’s what we’ll get into in this article.

What you’ll learn in this post

• All the basics of what goes into a research abstract for academic and scientific publication.

• What the abstract’s role is, and why it should never be overlooked or a simple repeat of text in your paper.

• The types of abstracts.

• What grammar and tense to use in an abstract.

• Expert tips on the abstract from Edanz’s science director.

• Where to get expert guidance for your abstract.

What is an abstract and why is it important?

Along with the title, the abstract is the first thing most readers will look at. It’s where they should get a clear and factual summary of your paper. This is also where readers usually decide to continue reading or to move on to something else. It’s like an elevator pitch .

The abstract should also be attractive enough to to get readers to read the entire paper. The content of the abstract, along with the title and keywords, is essential for the discoverability of your paper. This means you should prepare it carefully, revise it, and ideally have others read (and maybe edit ) it to be sure it says what you intend.

We’ll also note, right from the start, that it’s best to write our abstract LAST – after you’ve written your full manuscript. Only then can it be a truly accurate description of your work. And take your time with it. We’ll dig into more details in this article.

What does an abstract look like? What’s the structure?

The length of the abstract may vary depending on the type of paper and journal requirements. Most abstracts are around 200–250 words, but they can range from 100 (for a short summary like in mathematical papers) to 300 for certain journals, like PLOS ONE .

Abstracts can be any of the following:

• Unstructured: A single paragraph with no subheadings
• Structured: Divided subsections with headings such as Objective or Background, Methods, Results, and Conclusions. Clinical journals may require additional or alternative sections, such as Patients, Interventions, or Outcomes.

We can’t tell you why. It’s just a matter of journal preference , so check the guidelines carefully.

The good news is it’s pretty easy to turn an unstructured abstract into a structured one – just add subheadings and reword a bit. Or vice versa – just take out the subheadings and make sure it’s still readable. Edit accordingly.

There are also graphical and video abstracts , which give you the chance to visually explain your work, but we’ll cover those separately.

What writing style do you use for an abstract?

First of all, an abstract should not copy-paste text from the body of the manuscript. It should paraphrase your work and then be sharpened to make it easier to read.

Abstracts parts related to the aims, methods, and results are in the past tense. That’s because they tell what already happened – you already did the study.

Present tense

The background and conclusion are often in the present tense. That’s because they’re talking about ongoing things, like research activity and areas the study affects.

Active voice

Many journals also allow, and even encourage, use of the active voice and first-person plural pronoun (we, if there are 2 or more authors) – e.g., “We found…”

Abstracts for research proposals or funding applications, however, use future tense when discussing the study’s specifics. Why? That’s easy – because you haven’t done the work yet.

Journals in some disciplines have different styles. They may use the present tense throughout, especially for chemical synthesis or mathematical/computer modeling studies. They may also use passive voice throughout and not allow “We” even if these are allowed in the text of the main article.

Conference abstracts may have different styles. For example, the conference organizers may allow you to include references and small figures or tables.

References and abbreviations

Basically – no and no for references and abbreviations, but there are (always) exceptions.

Abstracts normally should not include reference citations or references to tables and figures in the main text. There’s simply no need unless your study is centered on a specific work.

Abstracts should “stand alone” – your reader should be able to understand the contents without having to refer to the rest of your paper. So…

Abbreviations should be avoided. They take up space and your readers may not understand them. Remember, an abstract isn’t only written for specialists in your field. For example, HIV is probably OK in abbreviated form. but even though RT-PCR is fine for a journal reporting molecular biology techniques, even there, it would probably need to be spelled out in the abstract.

Jargon and technical language should also be avoided whenever possible. If it’s impractical to avoid such terms, they should be defined clearly.

Descriptive vs. informative abstracts

Based on their content, abstracts can be descriptive or informative.

Abstracts of scientific papers are usually informative: that is, they include specific information related to the objective, methods, and results.

To be sure your abstract includes all the necessary information, try to answer the following questions:

• What’s the reason you did the study? (State what’s known and why the study is needed. Some journals and peer reviewers , even if they don’t overtly state it, may also reject submissions without a clear, testable hypothesis statement. It’s best to include one.)
• What did you do to fulfill the objective/prove the hypotheses?
• What were the main findings? (Make sure these are directly related to the stated objectives)
• What are the meaning, implications, and relevance of the findings?

You may recognize that abstracts follow an IMRaD format similar to the path you follow in a typical manuscript. But in the abstract, you only have space for the key methods and results. There’s no space for a real discussion, so the final section is simply the Conclusion.

Even if the abstract you’re preparing is unstructured (just one paragraph and without subheadings, but check the journal guidelines, because sometimes there’s more than one paragraph), the content should still include the same core elements as a structured abstract.

Try stating the answers to the above questions in a logical order, and you’ll be on your way to writing a complete, effective abstract. It should be possible to clearly identify the abstract’s different parts.

Some clinical journals also require additional standalone sections to highlight a particular aspect of the work. Often, this content should normally be included in any abstract anyway: 

For example:

• Clinical learning point
• What we knew before / What we know now

Finally, make sure the final abstract is consistent with the main text of the manuscript in terms of data, results, and general wording. And, even though we’re repeating ourselves here, be sure it satisfies what the journal guidelines ask for!

This means: check the word count, structure, subheadings, use of abbreviations, rules about active vs. passive tense, and so on. If you need some help, ask a pro editor to proofread it. Then you can be sure you don’t miss anything.

It’s an awful shame for a great study to get rejected just because you didn’t spend a little extra time (and in some cases a little extra money) to be sure your abstract shines.

Dr. McGowan on abstracts

We asked our Chief Science Officer, Daniel McGowan, PhD CMPP , for his thoughts on abstracts.

Most readers will read an article’s Abstract to decide whether the study is relevant to them and whether the full paper should be downloaded (which may need payment).

Some journals send only the abstract of a paper to editorial staff or editorial board members to decide if the paper should be sent for peer review.

Your abstract should therefore reflect the high quality of your study and summarize its most important findings and conclusions.  

Your abstract should:

• be clear, concise, and accurate 
• be easily understood: avoid uncommon abbreviations and jargon; in general, use abbreviations only if the abbreviation appears three times or more after its initial definition 
• be independent (stand-alone), without referring to the main text or any of the illustrations (tables or figures) 
• not contain illustrations, although some journals now ask for an additional “graphical abstract” 
• not contain any citations, but if they are allowed, the references are usually included within the text rather than as a footnote 
• contain some keywords 

You may find it useful to draft your abstract early on (a “working abstract”) as a guide for your paper’s structure and message, and then revise it at the end. Check the guidelines of your target journal for the word count, format, and style of its abstracts.  

There may or may not be a heading, and there may be subheadings (such as Background, Methods, Results, and Conclusions, in a “structured abstract”) or just one or two paragraphs without subheadings (in an “unstructured abstract”). 

Regardless of the format, your abstract should answer the following four questions: 

• Why was this research conducted? 
• What was the specific aim/objective and main approach of the study? 
• What were the main findings? 
• Why are these findings useful and important? 

Check your target journal for special instructions—for example: 

• Do different article types have different styles of abstract? 
• Should non-technical language be used or a non-technical abstract also prepared? 
• Is the style descriptive (topic, aim, and only a preview of the paper’s contents) or informative (including results and conclusion)? 
• Are key data and statistics expected in the results? 
• Should extra information (e.g., limitations or implications) be added? 
• Is only passive voice or a mixture of active and passive allowed, and what tenses are expected?

So let’s look at an example.

Example of a good abstract

This is broken down into three sections that are contain the substance of the abstract.

Depending on the journal, a couple more subheadings, such as Results, may be added. Their content is still included in this example 

1. Background

The placement of medical research news on a newspaper’s front page is intended to gain the public’s attention, so it is important to understand the source of the news in terms of research maturity and evidence level.

Explanation:  Subheadings are used because this journal requires a structured abstract. Note that the authors have mainly used the active voice. The Background provides the reader with the major research question . 

2. Methodology/Principal Findings

We searched LexisNexis to identify medical research reported on front pages of major newspapers published from January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2002. We used MEDLINE and Google Scholar to find journal articles corresponding to the research, and determined their evidence level. 

Of 734 front-page medical research stories identified, 417 (57%) referred to mature research published in peer-reviewed journals. The remaining 317 stories referred to preliminary findings presented at scientific or press meetings; 144 (45%) of those stories mentioned studies that later matured (i.e. were published in journals within 3 years after news coverage). The evidence-level distribution of the 515 journal articles quoted in news stories reporting on mature research (3% level I, 21% level II, 42% level III, 4% level IV, and 31% level V) differed from that of the 170 reports of preliminary research that later matured (1%, 19%, 35%, 12%, and 33%, respectively; chi-square test, P = .0009). No news stories indicated evidence level. Fewer than 1 in 5 news stories reporting preliminary findings acknowledged the preliminary nature of their content.

Explanation: In this combined Methods/Results section, the Methods subsection is quite short and the Results subsection makes up the largest proportion of the Abstract, because the reader is most interested in what you discovered. The order of the results goes from general to specific facts, and key data are included.  The verb tense is the simple past because the study and analyses have finished. However, theoretical and modeling studies often use present tense throughout the abstract.

3. Conclusions/Significance

Only 57% of front-page stories reporting on medical research are based on mature research, which tends to have a higher evidence level than research with preliminary findings. Medical research news should be clearly referenced and state the evidence level and limitations to inform the public of the maturity and quality of the source. 

Explanation: The major conclusion should be the first thing presented in this section. Here, the journal requires that the implications of the findings are also stated.

A final note from Dr. McGowan

If you keep the above tips in mind, you can write an effective abstract that will attract more readers (and journal editors!) to your research. Good luck!

Abstracts are usually followed by a list of keywords (or “key words”) that you, as the author, will choose. These shouldn’t be an afterthought – they serve a valuable function in helping your publication get indexed, especially on Google Scholar and Google itself.

That, in turn, helps potential readers find your work, read it, and maybe even refer to it or cite it.

Keywords supplement the title; they don’t replace it. So choosing them can actually be quite hard.

Always check your target journal’s instructions for authors as often journals will specify that terms used in the title shouldn’t be used as keywords.

Journals’ instructions for authors will state how many keywords are required and may even provide a list of recommended ones. Some clinical journals, for standardization, require you to choose from Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) keywords.

Excellent choices for keywords are:

• The main theme (of course, but in slightly different wording from the title if necessary)
• An odd or quirky area of your field; i.e., a specific niche term
• Regions and/or climactic conditions
• Applications of the research
• Techniques of the research

Another perspective: Four key questions for your abstract

That’s plenty of info already. Here’s a bit more if you want a simple way to look at writing your abstract.

All good abstracts answer four questions.

• Why did you do the study?
• What did you do?
• What did you find? and…
• What did you conclude? What’s the significance of the study?

This video from our publication expert explains this in greater detail:

Graphical abstracts

A graphical abstract is a single visual summary of the main findings of the article. This can be a figure from the article or a new, specially designed figure. 

Some journals request that authors provide a graphical abstract in addition to the traditional written abstract. In most cases, submission of a graphical abstract is optional; But in the future it may become a preferred style for abstracts because readers can understand the important message of the paper quickly. 

The following sites provide some excellent examples of graphical abstracts in different fields of study:

• Elsevier : Biology, medicine, materials science
• Thieme : Chemistry

Have an expert guide your abstract writing

What we call Abstract Development is one of our longest-running and most-popular author guidance services. Within as little as a day, you can hire an Edanz academic expert to write you, an abstract that accurately conveys your work in clear, accessible English. Explore Abstract Development and other services here .

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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Last Updated: Jun 27, 2023 Views: 2352

Imagine someone trying to decide if they want to read your paper while choosing from a long list of sources on the same topic.  You want to describe what your paper is about and your key points, in a short, concise manner.  A good abstract should include your research question or the problem you address in your paper, something about the sources and methodology you used, and the results or conclusions you have drawn from your research.  Describe each of these things in a sentence or two.

Ask yourself, “How can I give the reader a quick but informative idea of what my paper is about?”

The answer is simple!  Include these four things:

• The problem or question you address in your research (your topic )
• Why your topic is important in your field or discipline (its broader context )
• How you went about your research (your methodology )
• Your research findings and how they are useful (your conclusions )

Here’s an example abstract:

Recent elections in the United States have drawn increased attention to “fake news” and the spread of false and misleading information , contributing to voter confusion and impacting the credibility of the election process .  Because anyone can put anything up on the Internet and allege its truthfulness and accuracy , a well-informed electorate needs to be information literate .  This paper investigates and describes a process for distinguishing credible sources of news and information from sources that are not.  A sample of 18-22-year-old college students (n=220) were shown examples of websites both authoritative and dubious in nature and were asked to evaluate them.  Following this pre-test, criteria used in the CRAAPO test developed by the Southern New Hampshire University Library were discussed in a hands-on computer classroom environment , and example websites were dissected, assessed, and reviewed using these criteria.  Following this experience, students were again shown websites (different than those seen before) and asked to evaluate them for credibility.  Students were also interviewed about the reasoning behind their choices.  Time and again an awareness of CRAAPO criteria and where to look for them on websites demonstrated an increased level of information literacy among student participants.

In the above example the following areas discuss the topic :

..."attention to  “fake news”  and the spread of  false and misleading information , contributing to  voter confusion  and impacting the  credibility of the election process ...."

The following areas discuss the context :

"...allege its  truthfulness and accuracy , a  well-informed electorate  needs to be  information literate ..."

The following areas discuss the methodology :

"...  A sample of 18-22-year-old college students (n=220)  were  shown examples ..."

"...were  asked to evaluate  them..."

"...were  discussed in a hands-on computer classroom environment ..."

"... Students were also interviewed ..."

The following area discusses the conclusion :

"... demonstrated an increased level of information literacy among student participant s..."

Further Help

This information is intended to be a guideline, not expert advice. Please be sure to speak to your professor for further help with writing an abstract or for other writing questions in your class assignments and projects.

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How To Write a Research Question

Academic writing and research require a distinct focus and direction. A well-designed research question gives purpose and clarity to your research. In addition, it helps your readers understand the issue you are trying to address and explore.

Every time you want to know more about a subject, you will pose a question. The same idea is used in research as well. You must pose a question in order to effectively address a research problem. That's why the research question is an integral part of the research process. Additionally, it offers the author writing and reading guidelines, be it qualitative research or quantitative research.

In your research paper , you must single out just one issue or problem. The specific issue or claim you wish to address should be included in your thesis statement in order to clarify your main argument.

A good research question must have the following characteristics.

• Should include only one problem in the research question
• Should be able to find the answer using primary data and secondary data sources
• Should be possible to resolve within the given time and other constraints
• Detailed and in-depth results should be achievable
• Should be relevant and realistic.
• It should relate to your chosen area of research

While a larger project, like a thesis, might have several research questions to address, each one should be directed at your main area of study. Of course, you can use different research designs and research methods (qualitative research or quantitative research) to address various research questions. However, they must all be pertinent to the study's objectives.

What is a Research Question?

A research question is an inquiry that the research attempts to answer. It is the heart of the systematic investigation. Research questions are the most important step in any research project. In essence, it initiates the research project and establishes the pace for the specific research A research question is:

• Clear : It provides enough detail that the audience understands its purpose without any additional explanation.
• Focused : It is so specific that it can be addressed within the time constraints of the writing task.
• Succinct: It is written in the shortest possible words.
• Complex : It is not possible to answer it with a "yes" or "no", but requires analysis and synthesis of ideas before somebody can create a solution.
• Argumental : Its potential answers are open for debate rather than accepted facts.

A good research question usually focuses on the research and determines the research design, methodology, and hypothesis. It guides all phases of inquiry, data collection, analysis, and reporting. You should gather valuable information by asking the right questions.

Why are Research Questions so important?

Regardless of whether it is a qualitative research or quantitative research project, research questions provide writers and their audience with a way to navigate the writing and research process. Writers can avoid "all-about" papers by asking straightforward and specific research questions that help them focus on their research and support a specific thesis.

Types of Research Questions

There are two types of research: Qualitative research and Quantitative research . There must be research questions for every type of research. Your research question will be based on the type of research you want to conduct and the type of data collection.

The first step in designing research involves identifying a gap and creating a focused research question.

Below is a list of common research questions that can be used in a dissertation. Keep in mind that these are merely illustrations of typical research questions used in dissertation projects. The real research questions themselves might be more difficult.

Example Research Questions

The following are a few examples of research questions and research problems to help you understand how research questions can be created for a particular research problem.

Steps to Write Research Questions

You can focus on the issue or research gaps you're attempting to solve by using the research questions as a direction.

If you're unsure how to go about writing a good research question, these are the steps to follow in the process:

• Select an interesting topic Always choose a topic that interests you. Because if your curiosity isn’t aroused by a subject, you’ll have a hard time conducting research around it. Alos, it’s better that you pick something that’s neither too narrow or too broad.
• Do preliminary research on the topic Search for relevant literature to gauge what problems have already been tackled by scholars. You can do that conveniently through repositories like Scispace , where you’ll find millions of papers in one place. Once you do find the papers you’re looking for, try our reading assistant, SciSpace Copilot to get simple explanations for the paper . You’ll be able to quickly understand the abstract, find the key takeaways, and the main arguments presented in the paper. This will give you a more contextual understanding of your subject and you’ll have an easier time identifying knowledge gaps in your discipline.

     Also: ChatPDF vs. SciSpace Copilot: Unveiling the best tool for your research

• Consider your audience It is essential to understand your audience to develop focused research questions for essays or dissertations. When narrowing down your topic, you can identify aspects that might interest your audience.
• Ask questions Asking questions will give you a deeper understanding of the topic. Evaluate your question through the What, Why, When, How, and other open-ended questions assessment.
• Assess your question Once you have created a research question, assess its effectiveness to determine if it is useful for the purpose. Refine and revise the dissertation research question multiple times.

Additionally, use this list of questions as a guide when formulating your research question.

Are you able to answer a specific research question? After identifying a gap in research, it would be helpful to formulate the research question. And this will allow the research to solve a part of the problem. Is your research question clear and centered on the main topic? It is important that your research question should be specific and related to your central goal. Are you tackling a difficult research question? It is not possible to answer the research question with a simple yes or no. The problem requires in-depth analysis. It is often started with "How" and "Why."

Start your research Once you have completed your dissertation research questions, it is time to review the literature on similar topics to discover different perspectives.

Strong  Research Question Samples

Uncertain: How should social networking sites work on the hatred that flows through their platform?

Certain: What should social media sites like Twitter or Facebook do to address the harm they are causing?

This unclear question does not specify the social networking sites that are being used or what harm they might be causing. In addition, this question assumes that the "harm" has been proven and/or accepted. This version is more specific and identifies the sites (Twitter, Facebook), the type and extent of harm (privacy concerns), and who might be suffering from that harm (users). Effective research questions should not be ambiguous or interpreted.

Unfocused: What are the effects of global warming on the environment?

Focused: What are the most important effects of glacial melting in Antarctica on penguins' lives?

This broad research question cannot be addressed in a book, let alone a college-level paper. Focused research targets a specific effect of global heating (glacial  melting), an area (Antarctica), or a specific animal (penguins). The writer must also decide which effect will have the greatest impact on the animals affected. If in doubt, narrow down your research question to the most specific possible.

Too Simple: What are the U.S. doctors doing to treat diabetes?

Appropriately complex: Which factors, if any, are most likely to predict a person's risk of developing diabetes?

This simple version can be found online. It is easy to answer with a few facts. The second, more complicated version of this question is divided into two parts. It is thought-provoking and requires extensive investigation as well as evaluation by the author. So, ensure that a quick Google search should not answer your research question.

How to write a strong Research Question?

The foundation of all research is the research question. You should therefore spend as much time as necessary to refine your research question based on various data.

You can conduct your research more efficiently and analyze your results better if you have great research questions for your dissertation, research paper , or essay .

The following criteria can help you evaluate the strength and importance of your research question and can be used to determine the strength of your research question:

• Researchable
• It should only cover one issue.
• A subjective judgment should not be included in the question.
• It can be answered with data analysis and research.
• Specific and Practical
• It should not contain a plan of action, policy, or solution.
• It should be clearly defined
• Within research limits
• Complex and Arguable
• It shouldn't be difficult to answer.
• To find the truth, you need in-depth knowledge
• Allows for discussion and deliberation
• Original and Relevant
• It should be in your area of study
• Its results should be measurable
• It should be original

Conclusion - How to write Research Questions?

Research questions provide a clear guideline for research. One research question may be part of a larger project, such as a dissertation. However, each question should only focus on one topic.

Research questions must be answerable, practical, specific, and applicable to your field. The research type that you use to base your research questions on will determine the research topic. You can start by selecting an interesting topic and doing preliminary research. Then, you can begin asking questions, evaluating your questions, and start your research.

Now it's easier than ever to streamline your research workflow with SciSpace ResearchGPT . Its integrated, comprehensive end-to-end platform for research allows scholars to easily discover, read, write and publish their research and fosters collaboration.

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How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples 

The first step in any research project is framing the research question. It can be considered the core of any systematic investigation as the research outcomes are tied to asking the right questions. Thus, this primary interrogation point sets the pace for your research as it helps collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work.   

Typically, the research question guides the stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Depending on the use of quantifiable or quantitative data, research questions are broadly categorized into quantitative or qualitative research questions. Both types of research questions can be used independently or together, considering the overall focus and objectives of your research.  

What is a research question?

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question on which your research and writing are centered. 1 It states various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses. These questions also set the boundaries of the study, ensuring cohesion. 

Designing the research question is a dynamic process where the researcher can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. Depending on the scale of your research, the study can include single or multiple research questions. 

A good research question has the following features: 

• It is relevant to the chosen field of study. 
• The question posed is arguable and open for debate, requiring synthesizing and analysis of ideas. 
• It is focused and concisely framed. 
• A feasible solution is possible within the given practical constraint and timeframe. 

A poorly formulated research question poses several risks. 1   

• Researchers can adopt an erroneous design. 
• It can create confusion and hinder the thought process, including developing a clear protocol.  
• It can jeopardize publication efforts.  
• It causes difficulty in determining the relevance of the study findings.  
• It causes difficulty in whether the study fulfils the inclusion criteria for systematic review and meta-analysis. This creates challenges in determining whether additional studies or data collection is needed to answer the question.  
• Readers may fail to understand the objective of the study. This reduces the likelihood of the study being cited by others. 

Now that you know “What is a research question?”, let’s look at the different types of research questions. 

Types of research questions

Depending on the type of research to be done, research questions can be classified broadly into quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies. Knowing the type of research helps determine the best type of research question that reflects the direction and epistemological underpinnings of your research. 

The structure and wording of quantitative 2 and qualitative research 3 questions differ significantly. The quantitative study looks at causal relationships, whereas the qualitative study aims at exploring a phenomenon. 

• Quantitative research questions:  
• Seeks to investigate social, familial, or educational experiences or processes in a particular context and/or location.  
• Answers ‘how,’ ‘what,’ or ‘why’ questions. 
• Investigates connections, relations, or comparisons between independent and dependent variables. 

Quantitative research questions can be further categorized into descriptive, comparative, and relationship, as explained in the Table below. 

• Qualitative research questions  

Qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible. It concerns broad areas of research or more specific areas of study to discover, explain, or explore a phenomenon. These are further classified as follows: 

• Mixed-methods studies  

Mixed-methods studies use both quantitative and qualitative research questions to answer your research question. Mixed methods provide a complete picture than standalone quantitative or qualitative research, as it integrates the benefits of both methods. Mixed methods research is often used in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research, especially in the behavioral, health, and social science fields. 

What makes a good research question

A good research question should be clear and focused to guide your research. It should synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument, and should ideally be something that you are interested in. But avoid questions that can be answered in a few factual statements. The following are the main attributes of a good research question. 

• Specific: The research question should not be a fishing expedition performed in the hopes that some new information will be found that will benefit the researcher. The central research question should work with your research problem to keep your work focused. If using multiple questions, they should all tie back to the central aim. 
• Measurable: The research question must be answerable using quantitative and/or qualitative data or from scholarly sources to develop your research question. If such data is impossible to access, it is better to rethink your question. 
• Attainable: Ensure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific. 
• You have the expertise 
• You have the equipment and resources 
• Realistic: Developing your research question should be based on initial reading about your topic. It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline. 
• Based on some sort of rational physics 
• Can be done in a reasonable time frame 
• Timely: The research question should contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on. 
• Novel 
• Based on current technologies. 
• Important to answer current problems or concerns. 
• Lead to new directions. 
• Important: Your question should have some aspect of originality. Incremental research is as important as exploring disruptive technologies. For example, you can focus on a specific location or explore a new angle. 
• Meaningful whether the answer is “Yes” or “No.” Closed-ended, yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions. Such questions do not provide enough scope for robust investigation and discussion. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation before providing an answer. 

Steps for developing a good research question

The importance of research questions cannot be understated. When drafting a research question, use the following frameworks to guide the components of your question to ease the process. 4  

• Determine the requirements: Before constructing a good research question, set your research requirements. What is the purpose? Is it descriptive, comparative, or explorative research? Determining the research aim will help you choose the most appropriate topic and word your question appropriately. 
• Select a broad research topic: Identify a broader subject area of interest that requires investigation. Techniques such as brainstorming or concept mapping can help identify relevant connections and themes within a broad research topic. For example, how to learn and help students learn. 
• Perform preliminary investigation: Preliminary research is needed to obtain up-to-date and relevant knowledge on your topic. It also helps identify issues currently being discussed from which information gaps can be identified. 
• Narrow your focus: Narrow the scope and focus of your research to a specific niche. This involves focusing on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature or extending or complementing the findings of existing literature. Another approach involves constructing strong research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of study (Example: Is learning consistent with the existing learning theory and research). 
• Identify the research problem: Once the research question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize the importance of the research questions and if there is a need for more revising (Example: How do your beliefs on learning theory and research impact your instructional practices). 

How to write a research question

Those struggling to understand how to write a research question, these simple steps can help you simplify the process of writing a research question. 

Sample Research Questions

The following are some bad and good research question examples 

• Example 1 

• Example 2 

References:  

• Thabane, L., Thomas, T., Ye, C., & Paul, J. (2009). Posing the research question: not so simple.  Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie ,  56 (1), 71-79. 
• Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C. D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamentals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research.  Nephrology Nursing Journal ,  45 (2), 209-213. 
• Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative research and content analysis.  The application of content analysis in nursing science research , 3-11. 
• Mattick, K., Johnston, J., & de la Croix, A. (2018). How to… write a good research question.  The clinical teacher ,  15 (2), 104-108. 
• Fandino, W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.  Indian Journal of Anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611. 
• Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions.  ACP journal club ,  123 (3), A12-A13 

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Assignment Description

Prior to beginning a research paper or project, students are asked to write a short abstract that carefully considers their research question, their role as a researcher (synthesizer, reviewer, problem-solver, etc), the importance of their research question, and the information resources they will need to consult to answer that question. This assignment helps students move beyond researching a broad topic and towards narrowing the focus of their project to a research question. Adapted from an assignment in Professor Stephen Reese's UGS 302: Understanding 9/11.

Tips: When completed before a library instruction session, this exercise helps students arrive with well-defined information needs.It can also be developed into a research proposal assignment (perhaps as an alternative to writing a longer research paper) by asking students to provide an annotated bibliography.

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50 Abstract Philosophical Questions

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

An abstract philosophical question is one that deals with concepts rather than concrete facts, often exploring ideas that cannot be easily observed or measured.

For example, it might ask about the nature of existence, the meaning of life, or the concept of free will. These questions typically provoke deep thought and discussion, as they don’t have straightforward or empirical answers .

Below I’ve listed 50 of these sorts of abstract questions. If you’re a teacher, I’ve also included some scaffolding prompts you can use to ask your students when posing those questions for them.

Abstract Philosophical Questions

1. what is the meaning of life.

The meaning of life is subjective and varies from person to person. Some find meaning through relationships, achievements, or serving a higher purpose. Others believe that life’s meaning is something each individual creates for themselves.

Scaffolding Prompt:

• Can you think of a time when you felt your life had a particular meaning or purpose?
• How do different cultures or religions view the meaning of life?

2. Can happiness be measured?

Happiness is difficult to measure because it is subjective and varies greatly between individuals. Self-reports and surveys can provide insights, but they may not capture the full picture. External indicators like health and social relationships can also be used, though they may not always align with personal feelings of happiness.

• What are some ways you measure your own happiness?
• Do you think wealth or success can determine happiness? Why or why not?

3. What defines a person’s identity?

A person’s identity is shaped by a combination of factors including genetics, environment, experiences, and personal choices. It encompasses various aspects such as personality, beliefs, values, and social roles . Identity is dynamic and can evolve over time as people grow and change.

• How do you think your identity has changed over the past few years?
• What factors do you think are most influential in shaping a person’s identity?

4. Do we have free will or is everything predetermined?

The debate between free will and determinism centers on whether our choices are truly our own or influenced by external factors . Some argue that we have the ability to make independent choices, while others believe that our actions are shaped by prior causes and conditions. This question challenges our understanding of autonomy and responsibility.

• Can you think of a time when you felt you had no control over what happened?
• Do you believe your decisions are entirely your own, or are they influenced by other factors?

5. What is the nature of reality?

The nature of reality is a fundamental philosophical question that examines what is truly real. Some believe that reality is what we perceive through our senses, while others argue that there is a deeper, objective reality beyond our perceptions. This inquiry often leads to discussions about the limitations of human perception and the possibility of multiple realities.

• How do you know that what you see and experience is real?
• Do you think there could be more to reality than what we can perceive with our senses?

6. Is there such a thing as absolute truth?

The concept of absolute truth suggests that certain facts or principles are universally valid regardless of context or perspective. Some philosophers argue that absolute truths exist in areas like mathematics and logic. Others believe that truth is relative and shaped by cultural, historical, and individual perspectives.

• Can you give an example of something you believe to be absolutely true?
• How might different cultures view the idea of truth differently?

7. Can a person change their destiny?

The idea of destiny implies a predetermined course of events in a person’s life. Some believe that individuals have the power to change their destiny through choices and actions. Others argue that destiny is fixed and unchangeable, influenced by factors beyond our control.

• Have you ever felt like something in your life was meant to happen?
• Do you think your actions can change what happens to you in the future?

8. What is the purpose of art?

Art serves multiple purposes, including self-expression, communication, and emotional release. It can challenge societal norms, inspire change, and provide aesthetic pleasure. The purpose of art often depends on the context in which it is created and perceived.

• Why do you think people create art?
• How does art affect your life or the way you see the world?

9. How do we know if something is truly real?

Determining the reality of something involves questioning our perceptions and the nature of existence. Philosophers like Descartes have explored this through skepticism, suggesting that our senses can be deceiving. The debate continues over whether there is an objective reality or if everything is subject to interpretation.

• Have you ever experienced something that made you question what is real?
• How do you think we can determine if something is truly real or not?

10. What is the nature of consciousness?

Consciousness is the state of being aware of and able to think about oneself and the environment. Its nature is one of the most profound mysteries in philosophy and science, involving questions about the mind-brain relationship and subjective experience. Theories range from seeing consciousness as a purely physical process to considering it a fundamental aspect of the universe.

• What does it feel like to be conscious?
• Do you think animals or even computers could ever be conscious like humans are?

11. Is it more important to be loved or respected?

Love and respect are both essential for healthy relationships and personal fulfillment. Some may prioritize love for its emotional connection and support, while others may value respect for its affirmation of one’s abilities and worth. The balance between love and respect can vary based on individual needs and situations.

• Can you think of a situation where you felt loved but not respected, or vice versa?
• Which do you think is more important in a friendship or a family relationship?

12. Can humans achieve true altruism?

True altruism involves selfless concern for the well-being of others, without any expectation of reward or benefit. While some argue that true altruism is possible, others believe that all actions are ultimately motivated by self-interest, even if it is just the satisfaction of helping others. The debate explores the motivations behind human behavior and the nature of selflessness.

• Can you think of a time when you did something completely selfless for someone else?
• Do you believe people can act purely out of concern for others, without any personal gain?

13. What is the role of suffering in human life?

Suffering is an inevitable part of the human experience, and it can lead to growth, empathy, and resilience. Some philosophies and religions view suffering as a necessary component of life that brings meaning and purpose. Others seek to minimize suffering and question its value in the broader context of human existence.

• How has suffering or a difficult experience shaped your life?
• Do you think suffering is necessary for personal growth ? Why or why not?

14. Are people inherently good or evil?

The question of whether people are inherently good or evil has been debated for centuries. Some believe that humans are born with a natural inclination toward goodness and empathy , while others argue that selfishness and cruelty are innate traits. The discussion often involves examining the influence of nature versus nurture in shaping human behavior.

• Do you think people are born with a certain nature, or is it shaped by their environment?
• Can you think of examples from history or your own life that support either viewpoint?

15. What does it mean to live a good life?

Living a good life can mean different things to different people, often involving a combination of happiness, fulfillment, and moral integrity . Philosophers have various views on what constitutes a good life, from pursuing pleasure to following virtue or achieving self-actualization . The concept invites individuals to reflect on their values and what brings meaning to their lives.

• What are the most important factors that contribute to your idea of a good life?
• How do you think cultural or personal values influence what it means to live a good life?

16. Is it possible to have a society without rules?

A society without rules would lack structure, potentially leading to chaos and conflict. While some envision a utopian society where individuals govern themselves through mutual respect and cooperation, others argue that rules and laws are necessary to maintain order and protect rights. The discussion raises questions about human nature and the role of governance.

• What do you think would happen if there were no rules in your school or community?
• Can you imagine a way people might live together peacefully without formal rules ?

17. Can one person make a significant difference in the world?

Individuals have the potential to make significant impacts on the world through their actions, ideas, and leadership. History is filled with examples of people who have brought about change, whether through social movements , scientific discoveries, or cultural contributions. The question inspires discussions about the power of individual agency and the importance of personal responsibility .

• Can you think of someone who has made a big difference in the world?
• What qualities or actions do you think enable a person to create significant change?

18. What is the value of education?

Education is valued for its role in developing knowledge, critical thinking, and personal growth. It provides individuals with the skills and understanding necessary to navigate and contribute to society. The value of education extends beyond economic benefits, encompassing the development of informed and engaged citizens.

• How has your education impacted your life so far?
• Why do you think education is important for society as a whole?

19. Does technology help or hinder human progress?

Technology has the potential to both advance and complicate human progress. It can improve quality of life, increase access to information, and solve complex problems, but it can also lead to dependency, privacy issues, and social disconnection. The discussion often involves weighing the benefits and drawbacks of technological advancements.

• Can you think of a technology that has significantly improved your life?
• Are there ways in which you think technology has made life more difficult or less enjoyable?

20. What is the nature of time?

Time is a fundamental concept that is experienced subjectively and measured objectively. Philosophers and scientists debate whether time is an absolute, flowing entity or a construct of human perception. The nature of time raises questions about its relationship to existence, change, and the universe.

• How do you perceive the passage of time in your daily life?
• Do you think time would exist without human consciousness to experience it?

21. Is it possible to experience the world objectively?

Experiencing the world objectively means perceiving it without bias or personal interpretation, which is challenging due to individual perspectives and cognitive limitations. Our senses and experiences shape how we understand reality, often introducing subjectivity. The question explores the limits of human perception and the potential for objective understanding.

• Can you think of a situation where your perspective differed from someone else’s?
• How might personal experiences influence how we see the world?

22. What is the role of dreams in our lives?

Dreams serve various roles, from processing emotions and experiences to providing insight and inspiration. They can reflect our subconscious thoughts and fears or offer solutions to problems. The role of dreams remains a topic of fascination and study in psychology and philosophy.

• Have you ever had a dream that seemed to have a deeper meaning?
• Do you think dreams can help us understand ourselves better? How?

23. Can we truly understand another person’s perspective?

Understanding another person’s perspective involves empathy and the ability to see things from their point of view. While we can strive to understand others, complete understanding may be limited by our own experiences and biases. This question highlights the importance of communication and empathy in human relationships.

• Can you describe a time when you felt misunderstood?
• What are some ways we can better understand each other’s perspectives?

24. What makes something morally right or wrong?

Moral judgments about what is right or wrong are influenced by cultural, religious, and personal values. Some believe in universal moral principles , while others argue that morality is relative and context-dependent. The question examines the foundations of ethical behavior and decision-making.

• Can you think of a moral dilemma where there was no clear right or wrong answer?
• How do you determine what is morally right or wrong in your own life?

25. How do we determine the value of a life?

Determining the value of a life involves complex ethical considerations, often influenced by cultural, social, and personal beliefs . Some argue that all lives have inherent value, while others consider factors like contributions to society or relationships. The question challenges us to think about what makes life valuable and meaningful.

• What do you think makes a person’s life valuable?
• How do different cultures or philosophies view the value of life?

26. Is beauty subjective or objective?

Beauty can be seen as subjective, varying based on individual preferences and cultural standards, or as objective, with certain qualities universally recognized as beautiful. This question explores how perceptions of beauty are formed and whether there are universal standards. It also considers the role of aesthetics in human experience.

• Can you think of something that you find beautiful but others might not?
• Do you think there are certain things that everyone would agree are beautiful?

27. What is the relationship between the mind and body?

The mind-body relationship explores how mental states, like thoughts and emotions, interact with physical states, such as brain activity and health. Philosophical perspectives range from dualism, viewing mind and body as separate, to monism, seeing them as interconnected aspects of a single entity. This question delves into the nature of consciousness and physical existence.

• How do you think your thoughts and feelings affect your physical health?
• Do you believe the mind and body are separate, or do they influence each other?

28. Can money buy happiness?

While money can provide comfort and security, its ability to buy happiness is limited and often debated. Research suggests that beyond a certain point, increased wealth does not significantly enhance well-being. The question examines the relationship between material wealth and emotional fulfillment.

• What are some things that money can buy that might make you happy?
• Do you think there are aspects of happiness that money can’t buy? Why?

29. What is the significance of love?

Love is a powerful emotion that can provide deep connection, support, and meaning in life. It plays a crucial role in human relationships and personal fulfillment. The significance of love extends to its impact on mental and physical health, societal bonds, and individual growth.

• How has love impacted your life or the lives of those around you?
• Why do you think love is important for humans?

30. How do we know what we know?

Epistemology, the study of knowledge, explores how we acquire, justify, and validate what we know. It questions the sources of knowledge, such as perception, reason, memory, and testimony, and examines the certainty and limits of human understanding. This question encourages critical thinking about the nature and origins of knowledge.

• How do you determine if something you learn is true?
• Can you think of a time when you believed something that turned out to be false?

31. Is it better to be smart or wise?

Being smart involves having knowledge and intellectual ability, while being wise encompasses good judgment and the ability to apply knowledge effectively. Wisdom often comes with experience and understanding of life’s complexities. This question explores the value of intelligence versus practical wisdom in making decisions and navigating life.

• Can you think of a situation where being wise was more important than being smart?
• How do you think someone can become wiser?

32. What does it mean to be free?

Freedom involves the ability to act, speak, or think without external constraints. It includes various dimensions , such as personal freedom, political freedom, and psychological freedom. The concept of freedom raises questions about autonomy, responsibility, and the limits of individual liberty.

• How do you feel when you are free to make your own choices?
• What are some examples of freedoms you value in your life?

33. Can we ever achieve true justice?

We tend to think justice involves fairness, equality, and the impartial treatment of individuals. But achieving justice is challenging due to differing perspectives on justice (see: types of justice ), biases, and systemic inequalities . This question examines the complexities of creating a just society and the obstacles that must be overcome.

• Can you think of an example where justice was or was not served?
• What changes do you think are needed to achieve a more just society?

34. What is the role of government in our lives?

The government plays a role in maintaining order, protecting rights, and providing public services. The extent and nature of government involvement are subjects of debate, ranging from minimal intervention to active regulation and support. This question explores the balance between government authority and individual freedom.

• How do you think the government impacts your daily life?
• What do you believe are the most important responsibilities of the government?

35. Is it better to follow your head or your heart?

Following your head involves logical and rational decision-making , while following your heart is guided by emotions and intuition. Both approaches have their merits, depending on the situation and individual preferences. This question explores the balance between reason and emotion in making choices.

• Can you recall a time when you followed your heart and it worked out well?
• When do you think it’s important to rely on logic rather than emotions?

36. What is the nature of truth?

Truth can be seen as objective, based on facts and reality, or subjective, influenced by personal beliefs and perspectives. The nature of truth involves understanding how we determine and validate what is true. This question examines the complexities of discerning truth in a world with diverse worldviews .

• How do you decide if something you hear or read is true?
• Can you think of a situation where different people had different truths?

37. Are humans naturally competitive or cooperative?

Human behavior exhibits both competitive and cooperative tendencies, influenced by biological, social, and environmental factors. Some argue that competition drives progress and innovation, while cooperation fosters community and mutual support. This question explores the balance between these traits in human nature.

• Can you think of a time when working together led to a better outcome?
• How do you feel when you compete with others? Does it motivate or stress you?

38. What is the importance of friendship?

Friendship provides emotional support, companionship, and a sense of belonging. It plays a crucial role in mental and emotional well-being, offering trust and understanding. The importance of friendship lies in its ability to enrich life and provide a network of support during challenging times.

• How has a friend helped you through a difficult situation?
• What qualities do you value most in a friend?

39. Can we have knowledge without experience?

Knowledge can be acquired through experience, learning, and observation. Some argue that experience is essential for true understanding, while others believe that knowledge can also come from education and reasoning. This question examines the relationship between theoretical knowledge and practical experience.

• Have you ever learned something in school that you understood better after experiencing it in real life?
• Do you think it’s possible to fully understand something without experiencing it firsthand?

40. What is the purpose of storytelling?

Storytelling serves to entertain, educate, and preserve culture and history. It allows people to share experiences, convey moral lessons, and connect with others emotionally. The purpose of storytelling extends to its role in shaping identities and influencing social values.

• What is your favorite story, and why does it resonate with you?
• How do stories help you understand the world or other people better?

41. How does one define success?

Success can be defined in various ways, including personal achievement, happiness, and fulfillment. For some, success is measured by career accomplishments or financial stability, while others prioritize relationships and personal growth. This question encourages reflection on what truly matters in life.

• What does success mean to you personally?
• Can you think of someone you consider successful? Why?

42. What is the role of religion in society?

Religion plays a role in shaping moral values, providing community and support, and offering explanations for existential questions. It can promote social cohesion and provide a sense of purpose. The role of religion varies greatly across different cultures and societies.

• How has religion influenced your community or family?
• Do you think society would be different without religion? How?

43. Is it possible to live without hope?

Hope provides motivation, resilience, and a sense of possibility for the future. Living without hope can lead to despair and a lack of purpose. This question examines the importance of hope in maintaining mental and emotional well-being.

• Can you think of a time when hope helped you get through a tough situation?
• What gives you hope in challenging times?

44. What is the essence of courage?

Courage involves facing fear, adversity, or uncertainty with determination and strength. It is often seen as the ability to act despite potential risks or consequences. The essence of courage lies in the willingness to confront challenges and stand up for one’s beliefs.

• Can you describe a time when you had to be courageous?
• What do you think makes someone courageous?

45. Can You be truly selfless?

True selflessness involves acting for the benefit of others without expecting anything in return. While some believe true selflessness is possible, others argue that all actions have some element of self-interest. This question explores the motivations behind altruistic behavior.

• Have you ever done something kind for someone without expecting anything in return?
• Do you think it’s possible to be completely selfless? Why or why not?

46. What is the meaning of freedom?

Freedom encompasses the ability to make choices and act without undue constraints. It includes various aspects such as political freedom, personal autonomy, and freedom of expression. The meaning of freedom can differ based on individual and cultural perspectives.

• What freedoms do you value most in your life?
• How do you think freedom can be protected or enhanced in society?

47. What is the relationship between happiness and meaning?

Happiness and meaning are interconnected, with meaningful activities often contributing to a sense of well-being. While happiness is associated with positive emotions, meaning involves a deeper sense of purpose and fulfillment. This question explores how the pursuit of meaning can influence overall happiness.

• Can you think of an activity that brings both happiness and meaning to your life?
• Do you think it’s more important to pursue happiness or meaning? Why?

48. How do we reconcile individual rights with the common good?

Balancing individual rights with the common good involves ensuring personal freedoms while promoting societal welfare. This often requires finding compromises and establishing fair laws and policies. The question examines the challenges of creating a society that respects both individual autonomy and collective well-being.

• Can you think of a situation where individual rights might conflict with the common good?
• How do you think such conflicts should be resolved?

49. Is there a universal moral code?

A universal moral code suggests that certain ethical principles are valid for all people regardless of culture or context. Some argue that basic moral values, like honesty and compassion, are universal. Others believe that morality is relative and influenced by cultural and individual differences.

• Can you think of a moral principle that you believe should be followed by everyone?
• How do different cultures or societies view morality?

50. What does it mean to be human?

Being human encompasses physical, emotional, intellectual, and social aspects. It involves the capacity for self-awareness, creativity, and complex social interactions. This question encourages exploration of the qualities that define humanity and differentiate humans from other beings.

• What do you think are the most important characteristics of being human?
• How do you think humans are different from other animals?

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 25 Education Philosophy Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 60 Would you Rather Questions for Students (Of all Ages)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 25 Classroom Games Ideas for High School
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 25 Classroom Games Ideas for Middle School

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Is it wrong to start your abstract with a question?

My abstracts starts with three specific questions that my proposed research will answer. But when my friend saw this, he said: "I will never start an abstract with questions, and I will never read this paper if it starts with questions."

Is it wrong to start your abstract with a question sentence?

My friend and I are in the field of Information and CS (broadly speaking). He added that only some very prominent scholar dare to write such abstract.

• writing-style

• 41 I would expect your friend to miss some important studies when not reading papers (or only your paper?) in case their abstracts start with a question. –  Mark Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 7:44
• 8 @NathanS. Colons don't begin a new sentence, so Alan's friend won't read your paper. –  David Richerby Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 10:50
• 53 If your field of study is English literature, you could write a paper about this very topic, and the abstract would read "Is it wrong to start the abstract of your paper with a question? In this work we argue that it is not a good idea to do so." –  Ink blot Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 14:02
• 6 If a newspaper headline asks a question, then the answer is No, and no it's not worth reading... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betteridge%27s_law_of_headlines Maybe the same would be applied to your abstract (see other answers for how to reword and resolve the issue) –  Philip Oakley Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 16:55
• 5 I see nothing wrong in starting an abstract with a question. In fact, I think quite a few abstracts would be improved by such a start. –  Andreas Blass Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 23:03

7 Answers 7

As others said, this is a matter of style of convention and taste.

Compare these two abstracts:

Does every compact Hausdorff space admit a compatible metric? In this work we show that the answer is positive exactly in the case where the space is second-countable.

We show that a compact Hausdorff space admits a compatible metric if and only if it is second-countable.

Both have the same content, but only one of them feels like it actually invites you to read the paper. It starts by asking you a question, which to some extent is intriguing, and then provides you with a complete answer.

Papers should be something that is read by people. As such, the writing style should not be dry. I'm not saying that you should go overboard with elaborate writing and storytelling devices, but sprucing up your writing a little bit using questions or explanations is a good thing; it can help to make your paper much more palatable.

As for your friend's comment? Well, if he can judge the content of a paper by the first sentence of the abstract, I'm sure that he can skip the abstract altogether and just judge a paper by the title. I mean, why waste time reading two sentences?

• 14 +1 for "Papers should be something that is read by people.". Too many authors try to sound so smart that reading their paper becomes cumbersome. I like the Da Vinci mantra: "Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication." or as Einstein put it in teaching terms "If you can't explain it simply, you don't understand it well enough". –  CodeMonkey Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 13:03
• 4 Explaining something simply doesn't mean that everyone will understand it. It means that for a complex topic you don't add any unnecessary complexity. A lot of simple writing can be completely decoupled from the contents. Simple writing means: 1. Avoiding long convoluted sentences. 2. Not unnecessarily using archaic or "educated" sounding terminology. 3. Explaining special notation. 4. Not using the passive voice to sound more formal. BTW people that want to seem smart often produce the opposite impression –  CodeMonkey Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 14:26
• 19 Maybe I'm just getting too old, but the opening question gives the whole thing a feeling of cheap veneer of the popular science style documentary sort. It's as though the author is imagining themselves as Marcus du Sautoy or Jim Al-Khalili. It feels rather patronizing, to be honest. If I'm reading an abstract it's because my time is short and I want to determine whether or not to read the whole thing - I don't want to wade through fluff and showmanship. –  J... Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 18:00
• 3 @Inkblot I was a little confused by your answer because of the way you use "prosaic". But I think I have found the problem. As you can see here: en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prosaic prosaic means commonplace and is the opposite of poetic. Therefore your second example is the one that is prosaic. However, your confusion is not a new one, because Molière already put a comedic turn on it by having the title character of "Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme" discover, to his astonishment, that he had been speaking in prose his whole life. –  Robert Furber Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 20:32
• 5 @JiK My thoughts exactly. "Does every compact Hausdorff space admit a compatible metric? The answer will surprise you!" –  JollyJoker Commented Nov 23, 2017 at 13:19

As an author, you can choose different styles for abstracts. As far as I know, the most interesting and shortest abstract ever was written in this paper, Can apparent superluminal neutrino speeds be explained as a quantum weak measurement? by M V Berry, N Brunner, S Popescu and P Shukla.

Abstract Probably not.

• 7 If the asker's friend refuses to read question-abstracts, surely they'll reject question-titles, too? ;-) –  David Richerby Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 10:48
• 7 This is awesome! –  skymningen Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 11:31
• 12 That is probably the best abstract I've ever read. –  Polygnome Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 11:31
• 18 The mathematician Barry Simon once wrote an abstract like this: Abstract: Yes, of course. But we give examples too. –  Kimball Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 17:38
• 8 @Polygnome, yes, competing with this: ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1101812 –  Rmano Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 20:38

"I will never start an abstract with questions, and I will never read this paper if it starts with questions."

These are your friend's personal opinions regarding abstracts.

If you take a moment to read a cursory sample of published research abstracts, how many of them have a question? Isn't the purpose of research to answer questions?

As for your friend, politely agree to disagree. You decide what will be published.

Focus on whether or not your abstract effectively summarizes your body of research and its greater importance to the field. This is the purpose of the abstract, whether or not you choose to use a question or not is a matter of style and the input from your co-authors, editors, and confidants.

Remember that this is your work, not theirs.

Just some strayed thoughts:

Be cautious with reviewers who give overly dogmatic "rules of thumb" about writing. A few of those rules are reasonable and legitimate, the majority are either learned practices and unsupported or outdated conventions.

To me (hint: opinion), starting a paragraph with a question is cliche. 1) I can understand the use of it in other literature, but it's overly stylized in scientific writing. 2) People usually start reading the abstract because they are attracted by your title. There isn't really a strong need to use another bait. 3) The first part of the abstract is usually used to set the stage by presenting some background or key information to bring the readers up to speed. Starting with a question can throw some experienced readers off. 4) Most of the time, the follow up "answer" to that question tend to use very similar words, ending up wasting word count. 5) I work in biomedical field and the general style is to state the research question at the end of the background. Starting the same paragraph with a similar question would be, like the point above, wasteful.

For these reasons, I'd suggest try two versions with different starting style and all else equal, do another poll with some friends and colleagues and see how that goes.

• 4 The usual collection of rules should be prepended with: "Follow these rules, except when you shouldn't." But you do have to learn, understand, and use the rules before you can know when to relax or ignore them! –  aeismail Commented Nov 22, 2017 at 20:21

Hmm interesting... I think there is two layers to this question, one technical and one personal:

Direct Answer : you write a paper to be a source/voice for a very specific topic. If I'm reading your paper, I generally want to see a good topic, problem statement, solution/conclusion and future work. I want your paper to "knock me out" with the latest research findings for a very specific topic. The last thing I want to see is your thought process along the way. Hope you see the point here.

Researchers Dilemma (I dare you to....) : As a researcher, you have a personal trait, which is think out of the box. Just because someone suggested something, it doesn't mean that, "I will prove him/her wrong". This will waste your time, and energy. Then the question becomes when to follow/break the rules, well thats "the dilemma"; and you need to know the logic behind these rules/styles/approaches before you want to break them.

A question often summarizes the whole thing in a very short and precise way. Some books even are titled with a question. So why not? The only drawback is, that because of its shortness, simply throwing a question in is sometimes perceived as somewhat rude. Depending on your theme and audience that may be intentional, or maybe better avoided. I personally prefere precision and shortness over lengthy explanations.

I wouldn't say it's wrong, it just sets out the tone in a more informal manner than a clear statement of intention would make.

You could always just reword it and put forth that there is a question out there that you are setting out to answer (or attempt to).

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Submission deadline: 30 october 2024.

Thank you to everyone who submitted. Notifications will be sent to authors by the end of December 2023.

Sigma values contributions from research and evidence-based and translational science. Research sessions allow for presentation of research findings furthering the work of scholarship to address global health of the world’s people. Whereas evidence-based and translational science sessions showcase strategies, techniques, and models for implementing evidence-based practice and translational science practice.

Sigma’s research priorities are the development of healthy communities through health promotion, disease prevention, and recognition of social, economic, and political determinants; implementation of evidence-based practice; targeting the needs of vulnerable populations such as the chronically ill and poor; and capacity development for research by nurses.

Congress Theme

Representing nursing globally through dissemination of research and evidence, program outcomes.

• Attendees will experience an enhancement in their professional career from attending the conference and will report the conference met their goal for attending.
• Attendees will report an increase or deeper understanding, enhancing their overall nursing knowledge.

Topics for Submission

Below are possible topics for submission and explanations of the submission categories.

• Innovative pedagogy within nursing and midwifery education
• Interprofessional educational initiatives
• Professional development for educators and staff
• Faculty preparedness and retention
• Health and wellness advances in patient care
• Patient-centered care initiatives
• Patient and family education, engagement, and activation
• Evidence-informed integration of alternative and complementary health practices in the clinical setting
• Emerging alternative/complementary treatment modalities to augment conventional nursing interventions
• Thinking outside the box to incorporate a variety of health interventions for symptom management
• Development or utilization of technical innovations which represent progressive advances within nursing and midwifery
• Integration of technology in clinical, education, research, or leadership
• Data management and informatics
• Diversity initiatives focused on issues that address the health and well-being of healthcare professionals and global populations
• Equitable, innovative approaches to inclusive patient care and programs serving marginalized populations
• Advancements in equal access into the nursing profession
• Integration of global health perspectives in curricula and educational environments
• Innovative research or infrastructure development to address global health goals identified by the World Health Organization or United Nations: Sustainable Development Goals
• Exploration of emerging ethical issues or novel approaches to addressing ethical dilemmas across healthcare settings and patient populations
• Initiatives that address the Sustainable Development Goals or social determinants of health
• Healthcare interventions that promote health and wellness of individuals and communities
• Efforts that reduce or prevent chronic diseases and other morbidities
• Genomics/Genetics
• Partnerships to enhance local and global health or educational outcomes
• Intra or interprofessional collaborative relationships
• Networking and partnership development
• Addressing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals and the World Health Organization's goals
• Advancements in global leadership endeavors
• Innovative leadership strategies
• Healthcare systems and organizational development

New Abstract Submission Process

Sigma has recently changed abstract management systems. Benefits of the new submission process:

• More streamlined approach to abstract submission
• Less questions/fields to complete
• Help videos and PDFs available to assist with steps of the submission process

Guidelines for Electronic Abstract Submission

As you prepare for submitting, please keep the following items in mind. Please read through each section carefully prior to submitting an abstract. If you have further questions, contact [email protected] .

Download Submission Guidelines »

Please note: Peer reviewers will be using a rubric to review your abstract submission. See the abstract rubric for more information.

Download Abstract Rubric »

Please select the section titles below to view more information.

• Note: Peer reviewers will be using a rubric to review your abstract submission. See the abstract rubric  for more information.
• Completed work or projects may be submitted for oral podium presentation, poster, or PechaKucha presentations. If the work or project is not yet complete at the time of submission, the abstract may only be submitted as a poster or PechaKucha presentation.
• If successfully reviewed, final abstract acceptance will be conditional upon the presenting author having a paid registration for the event.
• Presenters assume all costs related to travel, accommodations, and other expenses related to their presentation.
• The primary presenting author should be listed first in the order of authors. All communication will be directed to the primary presenting author only.
• In addition to the abstract, a profile for each author (contact and biographical information) and disclosure form is required.

Please remember to include any and all members of your team or anyone who you may wish to give credit to for the work you are submitting. Once the abstract submission deadline has passed, you may not be able to add authors/presenters to the abstract.

• Abstracts, presentation slides, and author information will be uploaded to the Sigma Repository with the author's permission.
• Sigma is committed to worldwide collaboration. Please include global implications as relevant to your work.
• Abstracts and references should only be submitted in English.
• Sigma will not accept or review abstracts written with artificial intelligence agents (e.g., ChatGPT, OpenAI) for the development of the creative or scientific components of the abstract at this time.
• All abstract components have a maximum length of 3,000 characters. The title, presenter information, and references should not be included in the body of the abstract. In-text citations, however, are appropriate. These citations will be included in the overall word count. Full references are required in the Reference field.
• The use of a word processing program, rather than the submission form, is recommended for composing the abstract. Please check spelling, character count, and conformation to the guidelines prior to copying the abstract onto the submission form.
• All abstract and presentation materials must be in compliance with international copyright laws.
• Abstract title, abstract, and presentation focus should be original (not previously published or presented). We recognize that a study, project, or work may yield multiple findings and subsequently several original publications or presentations. To be eligible to present, submissions must contain an original title, abstract text, and subsequent presentation content (i.e., different view, perspective, or focus).
• Submission Due Date: Submit all abstracts no later than 11:59 p.m. (2359) Eastern Time on 30 October 2024.
• An email with your abstract ID and abstract title will be emailed to you after your email is submitted to the system. The email will include the submitter’s User ID. Please keep this email for reference.
• An individual may submit more than one abstract; however, if successfully reviewed, only one oral podium, one poster, and one PechaKucha submission will be accepted for presentation.
• Abstract submissions that are incomplete after the submission deadline will not be eligible for presentation and will no longer be accessible by the authors.
• Email confirmation of completed abstract submissions will be sent to the primary presenting author only upon receipt of the completed submission.
• Email notification of abstract acceptance will be sent to the presenting author only by the end of December 2024 .
• The intent to present form is required to maintain the submission as part of the presentation schedule. Only the primary presenting author is required to complete this form. The authors’ failure to return the “intent to present” information by the designated deadline will disqualify the abstract from presentation.
• Presentations must be uploaded by the identified deadline. No audiovisual (A/V) capability will be available for any presentation that is not uploaded by the deadline.

A complete presentation submission for a standard abstract submission includes the following:

Step 1: Title/Body

The sum of the 'Abstract Text, Abstract Summary, References' fields will have a maximum length of 3,000 characters.

• Title (Maximum of 100 characters)
• We suggest that abstracts be developed in a word processing program before accessing the online submission form. Use the spell check and character count features of your word processor to check the text of the abstract before submitting it.
• Sigma does not require specific headers for abstract text submissions. If using headings, please make them clearly discernable for the peer-reviewers by bolding or underlining the section header.
• The abstract should be logical and provide substantial details supporting the overall abstract topic. The abstract should be fully developed and clearly articulate the implications for the nursing profession.
• Please remove all references to the title and author information in the abstract text before completing the submission.
• Authors should review the information submitted very carefully for spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors. Edits to the abstract content cannot be made after the submission deadline.
• The abstract summary should be a brief summary of the abstract text. This should not exceed more than 500 characters.
• This could be used for promotional materials such as marketing materials if the abstract is accepted. This should be short and compelling to describe what participants should expect by attending your presentation.
• Provide a minimum of one scholarly reference (e.g., science journal articles, nursing journal articles, books). A minimum of one scholarly reference is needed to complete this step; however, to obtain a high score in this grading category, abstracts should provide the appropriate number of scholarly references that are consistent with the presentation style rubric.
• References should be recent and/or appropriate for the abstract (references should be no older than five years, unless they are a seminal work).
• A clear, consistent format (i.e., APA, Harvard, MLA, etc.) with less than one error should be used. It is recommended to copy and paste from a word processing program to maintain formatting.
• Clearly identify each reference using a numerical approach.

Step 2: Properties

• Completed Work/Project
• Ongoing Work/Project
• Oral (only completed projects are eligible)
• No Preference
• Subject Matter Select the best corresponding content for your work.

Subject Matter

• Non-academic education/professional development
• Patient families

Topic for submission

• Emerging Technologies
• Interprofessional and Global Collaborations
• Leadership Initiatives
• Advances in Education
• Advancing Clinical Practice
• Complementary Health Practices
• Global Health Equity
• Health Promotion/Disease Prevention
• Global Health Issues and Ethics
• Keywords Select the keywords that best describe your work from the dropdown menu. There are three keyword fields with only one being a required field to complete.
• What is your presentation format preference for this event?
• Which type of session best suits your abstract submission?
• Evidence-Based and Translational Science
• What is the setting of your work? Select option that best correlates with your work from the dropdown menu.
• Does this submission align with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?
• If yes, which of the following SDGs does this submission correlate with? If No, please select N/A. All Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are listed. Select all that apply.
• If Yes, please indicate the number of individuals impacted. If No, please select N/A. Select radio button that correlates with the number of individuals this work impacted.
• Preferred Presentation Date If your abstract submission is accepted, please indicate your preferred presentation date(s). Select 'No Preference' if you have no schedule restrictions. We cannot guarantee that all requests will be accommodated.
• Please ensure the date(s) selected for this question correlate with presentation format preference question listed in this step.

Step 3: Authors

This is the step where all authors or contributors should be listed. You will be listed as the first author.  Additional authors cannot be added after the submission deadline.

• The Search for Author to Add fields will display.
• Enter search criteria in the any of the fields, and then click Search.
• To add an author from search results, click the Add link to the left of the author's name and the name will be added to the current author list.
• If the author in the search results is not the person you are looking for, click the Create An Author button. Please be prepared with all author information before completing this step.
• Note: Please ensure you have searched for an existing author account before creating a new author account.
• The Create An Author screen displays. Complete the required fields: First/Given Name, and Last/Family Name.
• Click Submit Created Author.
• Before the account is created, you will be asked to verify the author information. If you find an error, click the Edit Information link in the left corner to make the necessary changes, or click Submit Created Author.
• The new author is displayed.
• Once the authors are added to your author list, you can add their affiliations by using the drop-down menu to select an affiliation that is already listed or click Create New Institution.
• Then a pop-up window will display. Enter all of the required fields: Institution, City, State, and Country.
• Click Submit Created Institution.
• Note: All authors will need to log in to the system and complete their author profile including the required a relevant financial relationship disclosure form.
• The person submitting the abstract is always listed as the first author, but the order of authors can be changed by using the AUTHOR ORDER drop-down on the left side of the author list. Change the numbers in the drop-down lists as needed and click Update Author Order.
• All authors are required to answer if they are a Sigma member. A complete list of Sigma chapters is available at the top of this step.
• When finished with the Author screen, click Save & Continue.

Step 4: Disclosures

• Based on past questions staff have received, the statement regarding original work is applicable only if the title and abstract being submitted are different from what has been previously published or presented.
• Once read, click the radio button to confirm that you agree.
• The individual completing the abstract must enter their name and credentials in the associated box along with the date completed.
• Click Save & Continue.

Step 5: Review & Submit

Review & Submit allows you to preview the information that was entered on each step of the submission process and a green check mark will display to the left of the step if it was completed successfully.

• This step is a confirmation of all the materials that were put into the system.
• If your submission has incomplete required steps, a red warning box will display to alert you of what steps are incomplete.

We recommend clicking the View Proof link to view the abstract proof in a new window.

Please note that Sigma must apply for an event permit for all in-person oral speakers with the United Arab Emirates authorities. Without this permit, accepted presenters will not be allowed to present. Completion of permit requirements will occur after abstract acceptance.

Research Sessions

Research sessions will serve as a networking forum to bring together researchers, educators, administrators, clinicians, and policy makers to address the global health of the world’s people. Through the presentation of research findings, nurses can further the scholarship and healthcare of the populations of the world.

Presentation options for this event include the following:

Oral Presentations

Individual abstract (20-minute presentation)

Included in a concurrent session of up to three abstracts around a similar topic grouped together by the program committee from individual abstracts accepted for presentation. An individual abstract is allotted 15 minutes for presentation with five minutes for audience questions.

Submit individual abstract

PechaKucha Presentations

PechaKucha (Petch-aa Koo-chaa) is a storytelling format where a presenter shows 20 slides for 20 seconds each. Slides are set up to automatically advance after 20 seconds. In other words, you have 400 seconds to tell your story, with visuals guiding the way. PechaKucha means "chit chat" in Japanese. This creative outlet is used by global innovators to create powerful, visually compelling stories that move audiences in less than 7 minutes. View this video to see an example of how a PechaKucha is created.

Learn more about the PechaKucha presentation format and see an example of how to create a PechaKucha.

Submit PechaKucha presentation

Submit symposium presentation

Poster Presentations

A traditional poster session is a single abstract presentation by an individual or representatives of research teams with an academic or professional focus. The work is peer-reviewed and presented on a large, usually printed placard, bill, or announcement, often illustrated, that is posted to publicize. It can also be a visual display of completed or in-progress work. An electronic version of the poster will be required for use in awarding nursing continuing professional development contact hours to attendees as well as included in the Sigma Repository.

Submit an abstract »

Symposia Presentations (45-75-minute presentation)

A symposium is a group of at least three (3) individual abstract presentations coordinated by one submitting author concerning a common topic of interest. Each symposium session is scheduled for a total of 45-75 minutes. The presentations are followed by a question-and-answer time. Symposia provide an opportunity to present research or evidence-based practices on one topic or theme, often from multiple perspectives, providing a coherent set of papers for discussion.

Because of the unique nature of symposia presentations, the submission process is different than oral, poster, and PechaKucha presentations. If you are interested in a symposium presentation, please email [email protected] the following information by 16 August 2024 .

• Symposium title
• Number of abstracts in the symposium
• Coordinating submitting author first and last name along with best contact email address

For more information, please contact [email protected] or call 888.634.7575 (US/Canada toll-free) or +1.317.634.8171 (International).

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Computer Science > Computation and Language

Title: spiqa: a dataset for multimodal question answering on scientific papers.

Abstract: Seeking answers to questions within long scientific research articles is a crucial area of study that aids readers in quickly addressing their inquiries. However, existing question-answering (QA) datasets based on scientific papers are limited in scale and focus solely on textual content. To address this limitation, we introduce SPIQA (Scientific Paper Image Question Answering), the first large-scale QA dataset specifically designed to interpret complex figures and tables within the context of scientific research articles across various domains of computer science. Leveraging the breadth of expertise and ability of multimodal large language models (MLLMs) to understand figures, we employ automatic and manual curation to create the dataset. We craft an information-seeking task involving multiple images that cover a wide variety of plots, charts, tables, schematic diagrams, and result visualizations. SPIQA comprises 270K questions divided into training, validation, and three different evaluation splits. Through extensive experiments with 12 prominent foundational models, we evaluate the ability of current multimodal systems to comprehend the nuanced aspects of research articles. Additionally, we propose a Chain-of-Thought (CoT) evaluation strategy with in-context retrieval that allows fine-grained, step-by-step assessment and improves model performance. We further explore the upper bounds of performance enhancement with additional textual information, highlighting its promising potential for future research and the dataset's impact on revolutionizing how we interact with scientific literature.

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Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs .

SemioLLM: Assessing Large Language Models for Semiological Analysis in Epilepsy Research

• Dani, Meghal
• Jeyanthi Prakash, Muthu
• Akata, Zeynep
• Liebe, Stefanie

Large Language Models have shown promising results in their ability to encode general medical knowledge in standard medical question-answering datasets. However, their potential application in clinical practice requires evaluation in domain-specific tasks, where benchmarks are largely missing. In this study semioLLM, we test the ability of state-of-the-art LLMs (GPT-3.5, GPT-4, Mixtral 8x7B, and Qwen-72chat) to leverage their internal knowledge and reasoning for epilepsy diagnosis. Specifically, we obtain likelihood estimates linking unstructured text descriptions of seizures to seizure-generating brain regions, using an annotated clinical database containing 1269 entries. We evaluate the LLM's performance, confidence, reasoning, and citation abilities in comparison to clinical evaluation. Models achieve above-chance classification performance with prompt engineering significantly improving their outcome, with some models achieving close-to-clinical performance and reasoning. However, our analyses also reveal significant pitfalls with several models being overly confident while showing poor performance, as well as exhibiting citation errors and hallucinations. In summary, our work provides the first extensive benchmark comparing current SOTA LLMs in the medical domain of epilepsy and highlights their ability to leverage unstructured texts from patients' medical history to aid diagnostic processes in health care.

• Computer Science - Computation and Language;
• Computer Science - Artificial Intelligence

Investigating Mixed Methods Research in Applied Linguistics: Methodological Avoidance and Possible Barriers in the Field

Article sidebar, main article content.

The field of applied linguistics is becoming increasingly transdisciplinary as recognition for the need to approach empirical questions from a variety of epistemological and theoretical perspectives grows (Douglas Fir Group, 2016). One methodological approach that holds promise for advancing sophisticated inquiry into complex issues of applied linguistics is mixed methods research (MMR); however, studies adopting MMR to its fullest potential remain infrequent. Employing an exploratory sequential mixed methods design that includes a focus group and survey questionnaire, this empirical study investigates the internal and external factors that may lead applied linguistics researchers to avoid conducting and/or publishing MMR. Integrated analyses revealed that participants’ methodological and publishing decisions were influenced by factors such as their socialization into research practices in graduate school, the pressure to publish, and the considerations of the research journal industry. Implications for future applied linguistics researcher education programs and the impact of the publishing industry on research agendas are discussed. 

Anuradha Gopalakrishnan, Ohlone College

Anuradha Gopalakrishnan is a multilingual instructor at Ohlone College, California. Her research interests include exploring instructional approaches that leverage the prior knowledge of multilingual learners.

Corinne S. Mathieu, Western Washington University

Corinne S. Mathieu is an Assistant Professor of Multilingual Education at Western Washington University. Her research focuses on dual language immersion education, content and language integration, and teacher preparation. Her recent publications have studied the use of pedagogical materials in Spanish secondary immersion classrooms.

Darren K. LaScotte, University of Minnesota

Darren K. LaScotte is a Senior Lecturer in the Minnesota English Language Program at the University of Minnesota. Over the last decade, his scholarship has focused on second language acquisition and use and on the resulting implications for teaching and learning in multilingual and multicultural classrooms. 

Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .