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• What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

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To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

• Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
• Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

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A literature review is a discussion of the literature (aka. the "research" or "scholarship") surrounding a certain topic. A good literature review doesn't simply summarize the existing material, but provides thoughtful synthesis and analysis. The purpose of a literature review is to orient your own work within an existing body of knowledge. A literature review may be written as a standalone piece or be included in a larger body of work.

You can read more about literature reviews, what they entail, and how to write one, using the resources below. 

Am I the only one struggling to write a literature review?

Dr. Zina O'Leary explains the misconceptions and struggles students often have with writing a literature review. She also provides step-by-step guidance on writing a persuasive literature review.

An Introduction to Literature Reviews

Dr. Eric Jensen, Professor of Sociology at the University of Warwick, and Dr. Charles Laurie, Director of Research at Verisk Maplecroft, explain how to write a literature review, and why researchers need to do so. Literature reviews can be stand-alone research or part of a larger project. They communicate the state of academic knowledge on a given topic, specifically detailing what is still unknown.

This is the first video in a whole series about literature reviews. You can find the rest of the series in our SAGE database, Research Methods:

Videos covering research methods and statistics

Identify Themes and Gaps in Literature (with real examples) | Scribbr

Finding connections between sources is key to organizing the arguments and structure of a good literature review. In this video, you'll learn how to identify themes, debates, and gaps between sources, using examples from real papers.

4 Tips for Writing a Literature Review's Intro, Body, and Conclusion | Scribbr

While each review will be unique in its structure--based on both the existing body of both literature and the overall goals of your own paper, dissertation, or research--this video from Scribbr does a good job simplifying the goals of writing a literature review for those who are new to the process. In this video, you’ll learn what to include in each section, as well as 4 tips for the main body illustrated with an example.

• Literature Review This chapter in SAGE's Encyclopedia of Research Design describes the types of literature reviews and scientific standards for conducting literature reviews.
• UNC Writing Center: Literature Reviews This handout from the Writing Center at UNC will explain what literature reviews are and offer insights into the form and construction of literature reviews in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences.
• Purdue OWL: Writing a Literature Review The overview of literature reviews comes from Purdue's Online Writing Lab. It explains the basic why, what, and how of writing a literature review.

Organizational Tools for Literature Reviews

One of the most daunting aspects of writing a literature review is organizing your research. There are a variety of strategies that you can use to help you in this task. We've highlighted just a few ways writers keep track of all that information! You can use a combination of these tools or come up with your own organizational process. The key is choosing something that works with your own learning style.

Citation Managers

Citation managers are great tools, in general, for organizing research, but can be especially helpful when writing a literature review. You can keep all of your research in one place, take notes, and organize your materials into different folders or categories. Read more about citations managers here:

• Manage Citations & Sources

Concept Mapping

Some writers use concept mapping (sometimes called flow or bubble charts or "mind maps") to help them visualize the ways in which the research they found connects.

There is no right or wrong way to make a concept map. There are a variety of online tools that can help you create a concept map or you can simply put pen to paper. To read more about concept mapping, take a look at the following help guides:

• Using Concept Maps From Williams College's guide, Literature Review: A Self-guided Tutorial

Synthesis Matrix

A synthesis matrix is is a chart you can use to help you organize your research into thematic categories. By organizing your research into a matrix, like the examples below, can help you visualize the ways in which your sources connect. 

• Walden University Writing Center: Literature Review Matrix Find a variety of literature review matrix examples and templates from Walden University.
• Writing A Literature Review and Using a Synthesis Matrix An example synthesis matrix created by NC State University Writing and Speaking Tutorial Service Tutors. If you would like a copy of this synthesis matrix in a different format, like a Word document, please ask a librarian. CC-BY-SA 3.0
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Literature Review

• What is a Literature Review?
• What is NOT a Literature Review?
• Purposes of a Literature Review
• Types of Literature Reviews
• Literature Reviews vs. Systematic Reviews
• Systematic vs. Meta-Analysis

Literature Review  is a comprehensive survey of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works.

Also, we can define a literature review as the collected body of scholarly works related to a topic:

• Summarizes and analyzes previous research relevant to a topic
• Includes scholarly books and articles published in academic journals
• Can be an specific scholarly paper or a section in a research paper

The objective of a Literature Review is to find previous published scholarly works relevant to an specific topic

• Help gather ideas or information
• Keep up to date in current trends and findings
• Help develop new questions

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Helps focus your own research questions or problems
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Suggests unexplored ideas or populations
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.
• Identifies critical gaps, points of disagreement, or potentially flawed methodology or theoretical approaches.
• Indicates potential directions for future research.

All content in this section is from Literature Review Research from Old Dominion University 

Keep in mind the following, a literature review is NOT:

Not an essay 

Not an annotated bibliography  in which you summarize each article that you have reviewed.  A literature review goes beyond basic summarizing to focus on the critical analysis of the reviewed works and their relationship to your research question.

Not a research paper   where you select resources to support one side of an issue versus another.  A lit review should explain and consider all sides of an argument in order to avoid bias, and areas of agreement and disagreement should be highlighted.

A literature review serves several purposes. For example, it

• provides thorough knowledge of previous studies; introduces seminal works.
• helps focus one’s own research topic.
• identifies a conceptual framework for one’s own research questions or problems; indicates potential directions for future research.
• suggests previously unused or underused methodologies, designs, quantitative and qualitative strategies.
• identifies gaps in previous studies; identifies flawed methodologies and/or theoretical approaches; avoids replication of mistakes.
• helps the researcher avoid repetition of earlier research.
• suggests unexplored populations.
• determines whether past studies agree or disagree; identifies controversy in the literature.
• tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.

As Kennedy (2007) notes*, it is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews.

Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are several approaches to how they can be done, depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study. Listed below are definitions of types of literature reviews:

Argumentative Review      This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review      Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.

Historical Review      Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review      A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study.

Systematic Review      This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review      The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

* Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature."  Educational Researcher  36 (April 2007): 139-147.

All content in this section is from The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee USC

Robinson, P. and Lowe, J. (2015),  Literature reviews vs systematic reviews.  Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 39: 103-103. doi: 10.1111/1753-6405.12393

What's in the name? The difference between a Systematic Review and a Literature Review, and why it matters . By Lynn Kysh from University of Southern California

Systematic review or meta-analysis?

A  systematic review  answers a defined research question by collecting and summarizing all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria.

A  meta-analysis  is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of these studies.

Systematic reviews, just like other research articles, can be of varying quality. They are a significant piece of work (the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination at York estimates that a team will take 9-24 months), and to be useful to other researchers and practitioners they should have:

• clearly stated objectives with pre-defined eligibility criteria for studies
• explicit, reproducible methodology
• a systematic search that attempts to identify all studies
• assessment of the validity of the findings of the included studies (e.g. risk of bias)
• systematic presentation, and synthesis, of the characteristics and findings of the included studies

Not all systematic reviews contain meta-analysis. 

Meta-analysis is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of independent studies. By combining information from all relevant studies, meta-analysis can provide more precise estimates of the effects of health care than those derived from the individual studies included within a review.  More information on meta-analyses can be found in  Cochrane Handbook, Chapter 9 .

A meta-analysis goes beyond critique and integration and conducts secondary statistical analysis on the outcomes of similar studies.  It is a systematic review that uses quantitative methods to synthesize and summarize the results.

An advantage of a meta-analysis is the ability to be completely objective in evaluating research findings.  Not all topics, however, have sufficient research evidence to allow a meta-analysis to be conducted.  In that case, an integrative review is an appropriate strategy. 

Some of the content in this section is from Systematic reviews and meta-analyses: step by step guide created by Kate McAllister.

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

APA7 Style resources

APA Style Blog - for those harder to find answers

1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

• use the tabs on this guide
• Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
• More on the Medical Library web page
• ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

• Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
• Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Ask your librarian for help at any time.
• Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
• Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
• Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
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Conducting a literature review: why do a literature review, why do a literature review.

• How To Find "The Literature"
• Found it -- Now What?

Besides the obvious reason for students -- because it is assigned! -- a literature review helps you explore the research that has come before you, to see how your research question has (or has not) already been addressed.

You identify:

• core research in the field
• experts in the subject area
• methodology you may want to use (or avoid)
• gaps in knowledge -- or where your research would fit in

It Also Helps You:

• Publish and share your findings
• Justify requests for grants and other funding
• Identify best practices to inform practice
• Set wider context for a program evaluation
• Compile information to support community organizing

Great brief overview, from NCSU

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Literature Reviews: Types of Clinical Study Designs

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Types of Study Designs

Meta-Analysis A way of combining data from many different research studies. A meta-analysis is a statistical process that combines the findings from individual studies.  Example :  Anxiety outcomes after physical activity interventions: meta-analysis findings .  Conn V.  Nurs Res . 2010 May-Jun;59(3):224-31.

Systematic Review A summary of the clinical literature. A systematic review is a critical assessment and evaluation of all research studies that address a particular clinical issue. The researchers use an organized method of locating, assembling, and evaluating a body of literature on a particular topic using a set of specific criteria. A systematic review typically includes a description of the findings of the collection of research studies. The systematic review may also include a quantitative pooling of data, called a meta-analysis.  Example :  Complementary and alternative medicine use among women with breast cancer: a systematic review.   Wanchai A, Armer JM, Stewart BR. Clin J Oncol Nurs . 2010 Aug;14(4):E45-55.

Randomized Controlled Trial A controlled clinical trial that randomly (by chance) assigns participants to two or more groups. There are various methods to randomize study participants to their groups.  Example :  Meditation or exercise for preventing acute respiratory infection: a randomized controlled trial .  Barrett B, et al.  Ann Fam Med . 2012 Jul-Aug;10(4):337-46.

Cohort Study (Prospective Observational Study) A clinical research study in which people who presently have a certain condition or receive a particular treatment are followed over time and compared with another group of people who are not affected by the condition.  Example : Smokeless tobacco cessation in South Asian communities: a multi-centre prospective cohort study . Croucher R, et al. Addiction. 2012 Dec;107 Suppl 2:45-52.

Case-control Study Case-control studies begin with the outcomes and do not follow people over time. Researchers choose people with a particular result (the cases) and interview the groups or check their records to ascertain what different experiences they had. They compare the odds of having an experience with the outcome to the odds of having an experience without the outcome.  Example :  Non-use of bicycle helmets and risk of fatal head injury: a proportional mortality, case-control study .  Persaud N, et al.  CMAJ . 2012 Nov 20;184(17):E921-3.

Cross-sectional study The observation of a defined population at a single point in time or time interval. Exposure and outcome are determined simultaneously.  Example :  Fasting might not be necessary before lipid screening: a nationally representative cross-sectional study .  Steiner MJ, et al.  Pediatrics . 2011 Sep;128(3):463-70.

Case Reports and Series A report on a series of patients with an outcome of interest. No control group is involved.  Example :  Students mentoring students in a service-learning clinical supervision experience: an educational case report .  Lattanzi JB, et al.  Phys Ther . 2011 Oct;91(10):1513-24.

Ideas, Editorials, Opinions Put forth by experts in the field.  Example : Health and health care for the 21st century: for all the people . Koop CE.  Am J Public Health . 2006 Dec;96(12):2090-2.

Animal Research Studies Studies conducted using animal subjects.  Example : Intranasal leptin reduces appetite and induces weight loss in rats with diet-induced obesity (DIO) .  Schulz C, Paulus K, Jöhren O, Lehnert H.   Endocrinology . 2012 Jan;153(1):143-53.

Test-tube Lab Research "Test tube" experiments conducted in a controlled laboratory setting.

Adapted from Study Designs. In NICHSR Introduction to Health Services Research: a Self-Study Course.  http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/ihcm/06studies/studies03.html and Glossary of EBM Terms. http://www.cebm.utoronto.ca/glossary/index.htm#top  

Study Design Terminology

Bias - Any deviation of results or inferences from the truth, or processes leading to such deviation. Bias can result from several sources: one-sided or systematic variations in measurement from the true value (systematic error); flaws in study design; deviation of inferences, interpretations, or analyses based on flawed data or data collection; etc. There is no sense of prejudice or subjectivity implied in the assessment of bias under these conditions.

Case Control Studies - Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.

Causality - The relating of causes to the effects they produce. Causes are termed necessary when they must always precede an effect and sufficient when they initiate or produce an effect. Any of several factors may be associated with the potential disease causation or outcome, including predisposing factors, enabling factors, precipitating factors, reinforcing factors, and risk factors.

Control Groups - Groups that serve as a standard for comparison in experimental studies. They are similar in relevant characteristics to the experimental group but do not receive the experimental intervention.

Controlled Clinical Trials - Clinical trials involving one or more test treatments, at least one control treatment, specified outcome measures for evaluating the studied intervention, and a bias-free method for assigning patients to the test treatment. The treatment may be drugs, devices, or procedures studied for diagnostic, therapeutic, or prophylactic effectiveness. Control measures include placebos, active medicines, no-treatment, dosage forms and regimens, historical comparisons, etc. When randomization using mathematical techniques, such as the use of a random numbers table, is employed to assign patients to test or control treatments, the trials are characterized as Randomized Controlled Trials.

Cost-Benefit Analysis - A method of comparing the cost of a program with its expected benefits in dollars (or other currency). The benefit-to-cost ratio is a measure of total return expected per unit of money spent. This analysis generally excludes consideration of factors that are not measured ultimately in economic terms. Cost effectiveness compares alternative ways to achieve a specific set of results.

Cross-Over Studies - Studies comparing two or more treatments or interventions in which the subjects or patients, upon completion of the course of one treatment, are switched to another. In the case of two treatments, A and B, half the subjects are randomly allocated to receive these in the order A, B and half to receive them in the order B, A. A criticism of this design is that effects of the first treatment may carry over into the period when the second is given.

Cross-Sectional Studies - Studies in which the presence or absence of disease or other health-related variables are determined in each member of the study population or in a representative sample at one particular time. This contrasts with LONGITUDINAL STUDIES which are followed over a period of time.

Double-Blind Method - A method of studying a drug or procedure in which both the subjects and investigators are kept unaware of who is actually getting which specific treatment.

Empirical Research - The study, based on direct observation, use of statistical records, interviews, or experimental methods, of actual practices or the actual impact of practices or policies.

Evaluation Studies - Works consisting of studies determining the effectiveness or utility of processes, personnel, and equipment.

Genome-Wide Association Study - An analysis comparing the allele frequencies of all available (or a whole genome representative set of) polymorphic markers in unrelated patients with a specific symptom or disease condition, and those of healthy controls to identify markers associated with a specific disease or condition.

Intention to Treat Analysis - Strategy for the analysis of Randomized Controlled Trial that compares patients in the groups to which they were originally randomly assigned.

Logistic Models - Statistical models which describe the relationship between a qualitative dependent variable (that is, one which can take only certain discrete values, such as the presence or absence of a disease) and an independent variable. A common application is in epidemiology for estimating an individual's risk (probability of a disease) as a function of a given risk factor.

Longitudinal Studies - Studies in which variables relating to an individual or group of individuals are assessed over a period of time.

Lost to Follow-Up - Study subjects in cohort studies whose outcomes are unknown e.g., because they could not or did not wish to attend follow-up visits.

Matched-Pair Analysis - A type of analysis in which subjects in a study group and a comparison group are made comparable with respect to extraneous factors by individually pairing study subjects with the comparison group subjects (e.g., age-matched controls).

Meta-Analysis - Works consisting of studies using a quantitative method of combining the results of independent studies (usually drawn from the published literature) and synthesizing summaries and conclusions which may be used to evaluate therapeutic effectiveness, plan new studies, etc. It is often an overview of clinical trials. It is usually called a meta-analysis by the author or sponsoring body and should be differentiated from reviews of literature.

Numbers Needed To Treat - Number of patients who need to be treated in order to prevent one additional bad outcome. It is the inverse of Absolute Risk Reduction.

Odds Ratio - The ratio of two odds. The exposure-odds ratio for case control data is the ratio of the odds in favor of exposure among cases to the odds in favor of exposure among noncases. The disease-odds ratio for a cohort or cross section is the ratio of the odds in favor of disease among the exposed to the odds in favor of disease among the unexposed. The prevalence-odds ratio refers to an odds ratio derived cross-sectionally from studies of prevalent cases.

Patient Selection - Criteria and standards used for the determination of the appropriateness of the inclusion of patients with specific conditions in proposed treatment plans and the criteria used for the inclusion of subjects in various clinical trials and other research protocols.

Predictive Value of Tests - In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.

Prospective Studies - Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.

Qualitative Studies - Research that derives data from observation, interviews, or verbal interactions and focuses on the meanings and interpretations of the participants.

Quantitative Studies - Quantitative research is research that uses numerical analysis.

Random Allocation - A process involving chance used in therapeutic trials or other research endeavor for allocating experimental subjects, human or animal, between treatment and control groups, or among treatment groups. It may also apply to experiments on inanimate objects.

Randomized Controlled Trial - Clinical trials that involve at least one test treatment and one control treatment, concurrent enrollment and follow-up of the test- and control-treated groups, and in which the treatments to be administered are selected by a random process, such as the use of a random-numbers table.

Reproducibility of Results - The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.

Retrospective Studies - Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.

Sample Size - The number of units (persons, animals, patients, specified circumstances, etc.) in a population to be studied. The sample size should be big enough to have a high likelihood of detecting a true difference between two groups.

Sensitivity and Specificity - Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition.

Single-Blind Method - A method in which either the observer(s) or the subject(s) is kept ignorant of the group to which the subjects are assigned.

Time Factors - Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Source:  NLM MeSH Database

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Literature Review and Research Design

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Designing a research project is possibly the most difficult task a dissertation writer faces. It is fraught with uncertainty: what is the best subject? What is the best method? For every answer found, there are often multiple subsequent questions, so it’s easy to get lost in theoretical debates and buried under a mountain of literature.

This book looks at literature review in the process of research design, and how to develop a research practice that will build skills in reading and writing about research literature—skills that remain valuable in both academic and professional careers. Literature review is approached as a process of engaging with the discourse of scholarly communities that will help graduate researchers refine, define, and express their own scholarly vision and voice. This orientation on research as an exploratory practice, rather than merely a series of predetermined steps in a systematic method, allows the researcher to deal with the uncertainties and changes that come with learning new ideas and new perspectives.

The focus on the practical elements of research design makes this book an invaluable resource for graduate students writing dissertations. Practicing research allows room for experiment, error, and learning, ultimately helping graduate researchers use the literature effectively to build a solid scholarly foundation for their dissertation research project.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part i | 2  pages, on research, chapter 1 | 15  pages, research philosophy, chapter 2 | 23  pages, research practice, part ii | 4  pages, reading literature, chapter 3 | 23  pages, chapter 4 | 26  pages, managing the literature, chapter 5 | 17  pages, deep reading, part iii | 4  pages, writing about literature, chapter 6 | 22  pages, writing with literature, chapter 7 | 19  pages, writing a literature review, chapter | 2  pages.

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Methodology

• Systematic Review | Definition, Example, & Guide

Systematic Review | Definition, Example & Guide

Published on June 15, 2022 by Shaun Turney . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A systematic review is a type of review that uses repeatable methods to find, select, and synthesize all available evidence. It answers a clearly formulated research question and explicitly states the methods used to arrive at the answer.

They answered the question “What is the effectiveness of probiotics in reducing eczema symptoms and improving quality of life in patients with eczema?”

In this context, a probiotic is a health product that contains live microorganisms and is taken by mouth. Eczema is a common skin condition that causes red, itchy skin.

Table of contents

What is a systematic review, systematic review vs. meta-analysis, systematic review vs. literature review, systematic review vs. scoping review, when to conduct a systematic review, pros and cons of systematic reviews, step-by-step example of a systematic review, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about systematic reviews.

A review is an overview of the research that’s already been completed on a topic.

What makes a systematic review different from other types of reviews is that the research methods are designed to reduce bias . The methods are repeatable, and the approach is formal and systematic:

• Formulate a research question
• Develop a protocol
• Search for all relevant studies
• Apply the selection criteria
• Extract the data
• Synthesize the data
• Write and publish a report

Although multiple sets of guidelines exist, the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews is among the most widely used. It provides detailed guidelines on how to complete each step of the systematic review process.

Systematic reviews are most commonly used in medical and public health research, but they can also be found in other disciplines.

Systematic reviews typically answer their research question by synthesizing all available evidence and evaluating the quality of the evidence. Synthesizing means bringing together different information to tell a single, cohesive story. The synthesis can be narrative ( qualitative ), quantitative , or both.

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Systematic reviews often quantitatively synthesize the evidence using a meta-analysis . A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis, not a type of review.

A meta-analysis is a technique to synthesize results from multiple studies. It’s a statistical analysis that combines the results of two or more studies, usually to estimate an effect size .

A literature review is a type of review that uses a less systematic and formal approach than a systematic review. Typically, an expert in a topic will qualitatively summarize and evaluate previous work, without using a formal, explicit method.

Although literature reviews are often less time-consuming and can be insightful or helpful, they have a higher risk of bias and are less transparent than systematic reviews.

Similar to a systematic review, a scoping review is a type of review that tries to minimize bias by using transparent and repeatable methods.

However, a scoping review isn’t a type of systematic review. The most important difference is the goal: rather than answering a specific question, a scoping review explores a topic. The researcher tries to identify the main concepts, theories, and evidence, as well as gaps in the current research.

Sometimes scoping reviews are an exploratory preparation step for a systematic review, and sometimes they are a standalone project.

A systematic review is a good choice of review if you want to answer a question about the effectiveness of an intervention , such as a medical treatment.

To conduct a systematic review, you’ll need the following:

• A precise question , usually about the effectiveness of an intervention. The question needs to be about a topic that’s previously been studied by multiple researchers. If there’s no previous research, there’s nothing to review.
• If you’re doing a systematic review on your own (e.g., for a research paper or thesis ), you should take appropriate measures to ensure the validity and reliability of your research.
• Access to databases and journal archives. Often, your educational institution provides you with access.
• Time. A professional systematic review is a time-consuming process: it will take the lead author about six months of full-time work. If you’re a student, you should narrow the scope of your systematic review and stick to a tight schedule.
• Bibliographic, word-processing, spreadsheet, and statistical software . For example, you could use EndNote, Microsoft Word, Excel, and SPSS.

A systematic review has many pros .

• They minimize research bias by considering all available evidence and evaluating each study for bias.
• Their methods are transparent , so they can be scrutinized by others.
• They’re thorough : they summarize all available evidence.
• They can be replicated and updated by others.

Systematic reviews also have a few cons .

• They’re time-consuming .
• They’re narrow in scope : they only answer the precise research question.

The 7 steps for conducting a systematic review are explained with an example.

Step 1: Formulate a research question

Formulating the research question is probably the most important step of a systematic review. A clear research question will:

• Allow you to more effectively communicate your research to other researchers and practitioners
• Guide your decisions as you plan and conduct your systematic review

A good research question for a systematic review has four components, which you can remember with the acronym PICO :

• Population(s) or problem(s)
• Intervention(s)
• Comparison(s)

You can rearrange these four components to write your research question:

• What is the effectiveness of I versus C for O in P ?

Sometimes, you may want to include a fifth component, the type of study design . In this case, the acronym is PICOT .

• Type of study design(s)
• The population of patients with eczema
• The intervention of probiotics
• In comparison to no treatment, placebo , or non-probiotic treatment
• The outcome of changes in participant-, parent-, and doctor-rated symptoms of eczema and quality of life
• Randomized control trials, a type of study design

Their research question was:

• What is the effectiveness of probiotics versus no treatment, a placebo, or a non-probiotic treatment for reducing eczema symptoms and improving quality of life in patients with eczema?

Step 2: Develop a protocol

A protocol is a document that contains your research plan for the systematic review. This is an important step because having a plan allows you to work more efficiently and reduces bias.

Your protocol should include the following components:

• Background information : Provide the context of the research question, including why it’s important.
• Research objective (s) : Rephrase your research question as an objective.
• Selection criteria: State how you’ll decide which studies to include or exclude from your review.
• Search strategy: Discuss your plan for finding studies.
• Analysis: Explain what information you’ll collect from the studies and how you’ll synthesize the data.

If you’re a professional seeking to publish your review, it’s a good idea to bring together an advisory committee . This is a group of about six people who have experience in the topic you’re researching. They can help you make decisions about your protocol.

It’s highly recommended to register your protocol. Registering your protocol means submitting it to a database such as PROSPERO or ClinicalTrials.gov .

Step 3: Search for all relevant studies

Searching for relevant studies is the most time-consuming step of a systematic review.

To reduce bias, it’s important to search for relevant studies very thoroughly. Your strategy will depend on your field and your research question, but sources generally fall into these four categories:

• Databases: Search multiple databases of peer-reviewed literature, such as PubMed or Scopus . Think carefully about how to phrase your search terms and include multiple synonyms of each word. Use Boolean operators if relevant.
• Handsearching: In addition to searching the primary sources using databases, you’ll also need to search manually. One strategy is to scan relevant journals or conference proceedings. Another strategy is to scan the reference lists of relevant studies.
• Gray literature: Gray literature includes documents produced by governments, universities, and other institutions that aren’t published by traditional publishers. Graduate student theses are an important type of gray literature, which you can search using the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD) . In medicine, clinical trial registries are another important type of gray literature.
• Experts: Contact experts in the field to ask if they have unpublished studies that should be included in your review.

At this stage of your review, you won’t read the articles yet. Simply save any potentially relevant citations using bibliographic software, such as Scribbr’s APA or MLA Generator .

• Databases: EMBASE, PsycINFO, AMED, LILACS, and ISI Web of Science
• Handsearch: Conference proceedings and reference lists of articles
• Gray literature: The Cochrane Library, the metaRegister of Controlled Trials, and the Ongoing Skin Trials Register
• Experts: Authors of unpublished registered trials, pharmaceutical companies, and manufacturers of probiotics

Step 4: Apply the selection criteria

Applying the selection criteria is a three-person job. Two of you will independently read the studies and decide which to include in your review based on the selection criteria you established in your protocol . The third person’s job is to break any ties.

To increase inter-rater reliability , ensure that everyone thoroughly understands the selection criteria before you begin.

If you’re writing a systematic review as a student for an assignment, you might not have a team. In this case, you’ll have to apply the selection criteria on your own; you can mention this as a limitation in your paper’s discussion.

You should apply the selection criteria in two phases:

• Based on the titles and abstracts : Decide whether each article potentially meets the selection criteria based on the information provided in the abstracts.
• Based on the full texts: Download the articles that weren’t excluded during the first phase. If an article isn’t available online or through your library, you may need to contact the authors to ask for a copy. Read the articles and decide which articles meet the selection criteria.

It’s very important to keep a meticulous record of why you included or excluded each article. When the selection process is complete, you can summarize what you did using a PRISMA flow diagram .

Next, Boyle and colleagues found the full texts for each of the remaining studies. Boyle and Tang read through the articles to decide if any more studies needed to be excluded based on the selection criteria.

When Boyle and Tang disagreed about whether a study should be excluded, they discussed it with Varigos until the three researchers came to an agreement.

Step 5: Extract the data

Extracting the data means collecting information from the selected studies in a systematic way. There are two types of information you need to collect from each study:

• Information about the study’s methods and results . The exact information will depend on your research question, but it might include the year, study design , sample size, context, research findings , and conclusions. If any data are missing, you’ll need to contact the study’s authors.
• Your judgment of the quality of the evidence, including risk of bias .

You should collect this information using forms. You can find sample forms in The Registry of Methods and Tools for Evidence-Informed Decision Making and the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations Working Group .

Extracting the data is also a three-person job. Two people should do this step independently, and the third person will resolve any disagreements.

They also collected data about possible sources of bias, such as how the study participants were randomized into the control and treatment groups.

Step 6: Synthesize the data

Synthesizing the data means bringing together the information you collected into a single, cohesive story. There are two main approaches to synthesizing the data:

• Narrative ( qualitative ): Summarize the information in words. You’ll need to discuss the studies and assess their overall quality.
• Quantitative : Use statistical methods to summarize and compare data from different studies. The most common quantitative approach is a meta-analysis , which allows you to combine results from multiple studies into a summary result.

Generally, you should use both approaches together whenever possible. If you don’t have enough data, or the data from different studies aren’t comparable, then you can take just a narrative approach. However, you should justify why a quantitative approach wasn’t possible.

Boyle and colleagues also divided the studies into subgroups, such as studies about babies, children, and adults, and analyzed the effect sizes within each group.

Step 7: Write and publish a report

The purpose of writing a systematic review article is to share the answer to your research question and explain how you arrived at this answer.

Your article should include the following sections:

• Abstract : A summary of the review
• Introduction : Including the rationale and objectives
• Methods : Including the selection criteria, search method, data extraction method, and synthesis method
• Results : Including results of the search and selection process, study characteristics, risk of bias in the studies, and synthesis results
• Discussion : Including interpretation of the results and limitations of the review
• Conclusion : The answer to your research question and implications for practice, policy, or research

To verify that your report includes everything it needs, you can use the PRISMA checklist .

Once your report is written, you can publish it in a systematic review database, such as the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , and/or in a peer-reviewed journal.

In their report, Boyle and colleagues concluded that probiotics cannot be recommended for reducing eczema symptoms or improving quality of life in patients with eczema. Note Generative AI tools like ChatGPT can be useful at various stages of the writing and research process and can help you to write your systematic review. However, we strongly advise against trying to pass AI-generated text off as your own work.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

A systematic review is secondary research because it uses existing research. You don’t collect new data yourself.

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Approaching literature review for academic purposes: The Literature Review Checklist

Debora fb leite, maria auxiliadora soares padilha, jose g cecatti.

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*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Received 2019 Jun 22; Accepted 2019 Sep 17; Issue date 2019.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

A sophisticated literature review (LR) can result in a robust dissertation/thesis by scrutinizing the main problem examined by the academic study; anticipating research hypotheses, methods and results; and maintaining the interest of the audience in how the dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field. Unfortunately, little guidance is available on elaborating LRs, and writing an LR chapter is not a linear process. An LR translates students’ abilities in information literacy, the language domain, and critical writing. Students in postgraduate programs should be systematically trained in these skills. Therefore, this paper discusses the purposes of LRs in dissertations and theses. Second, the paper considers five steps for developing a review: defining the main topic, searching the literature, analyzing the results, writing the review and reflecting on the writing. Ultimately, this study proposes a twelve-item LR checklist. By clearly stating the desired achievements, this checklist allows Masters and Ph.D. students to continuously assess their own progress in elaborating an LR. Institutions aiming to strengthen students’ necessary skills in critical academic writing should also use this tool.

Keywords: Review, Checklist, Academic Performance, Critical Thinking, Learning

INTRODUCTION

Writing the literature review (LR) is often viewed as a difficult task that can be a point of writer’s block and procrastination ( 1 ) in postgraduate life. Disagreements on the definitions or classifications of LRs ( 2 ) may confuse students about their purpose and scope, as well as how to perform an LR. Interestingly, at many universities, the LR is still an important element in any academic work, despite the more recent trend of producing scientific articles rather than classical theses.

The LR is not an isolated section of the thesis/dissertation or a copy of the background section of a research proposal. It identifies the state-of-the-art knowledge in a particular field, clarifies information that is already known, elucidates implications of the problem being analyzed, links theory and practice ( 3 - 5 ), highlights gaps in the current literature, and places the dissertation/thesis within the research agenda of that field. Additionally, by writing the LR, postgraduate students will comprehend the structure of the subject and elaborate on their cognitive connections ( 3 ) while analyzing and synthesizing data with increasing maturity.

At the same time, the LR transforms the student and hints at the contents of other chapters for the reader. First, the LR explains the research question; second, it supports the hypothesis, objectives, and methods of the research project; and finally, it facilitates a description of the student’s interpretation of the results and his/her conclusions. For scholars, the LR is an introductory chapter ( 6 ). If it is well written, it demonstrates the student’s understanding of and maturity in a particular topic. A sound and sophisticated LR can indicate a robust dissertation/thesis.

A consensus on the best method to elaborate a dissertation/thesis has not been achieved. The LR can be a distinct chapter or included in different sections; it can be part of the introduction chapter, part of each research topic, or part of each published paper ( 7 ). However, scholars view the LR as an integral part of the main body of an academic work because it is intrinsically connected to other sections ( Figure 1 ) and is frequently present. The structure of the LR depends on the conventions of a particular discipline, the rules of the department, and the student’s and supervisor’s areas of expertise, needs and interests.

Figure 1. The LR chapter is an elemental component of thesis and dissertations, and it is directly connected to other sections. By assessing the LR chapter, the reader might anticipate what to expect from the remaining sections of the academic text.

Interestingly, many postgraduate students choose to submit their LR to peer-reviewed journals. As LRs are critical evaluations of current knowledge, they are indeed publishable material, even in the form of narrative or systematic reviews. However, systematic reviews have specific patterns 1 ( 8 ) that may not entirely fit with the questions posed in the dissertation/thesis. Additionally, the scope of a systematic review may be too narrow, and the strict criteria for study inclusion may omit important information from the dissertation/thesis. Therefore, this essay discusses the definition of an LR is and methods to develop an LR in the context of an academic dissertation/thesis. Finally, we suggest a checklist to evaluate an LR.

WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW IN A THESIS?

Conducting research and writing a dissertation/thesis translates rational thinking and enthusiasm ( 9 ). While a strong body of literature that instructs students on research methodology, data analysis and writing scientific papers exists, little guidance on performing LRs is available. The LR is a unique opportunity to assess and contrast various arguments and theories, not just summarize them. The research results should not be discussed within the LR, but the postgraduate student tends to write a comprehensive LR while reflecting on his or her own findings ( 10 ).

Many people believe that writing an LR is a lonely and linear process. Supervisors or the institutions assume that the Ph.D. student has mastered the relevant techniques and vocabulary associated with his/her subject and conducts a self-reflection about previously published findings. Indeed, while elaborating the LR, the student should aggregate diverse skills, which mainly rely on his/her own commitment to mastering them. Thus, less supervision should be required ( 11 ). However, the parameters described above might not currently be the case for many students ( 11 , 12 ), and the lack of formal and systematic training on writing LRs is an important concern ( 11 ).

An institutional environment devoted to active learning will provide students the opportunity to continuously reflect on LRs, which will form a dialogue between the postgraduate student and the current literature in a particular field ( 13 ). Postgraduate students will be interpreting studies by other researchers, and, according to Hart (1998) ( 3 ), the outcomes of the LR in a dissertation/thesis include the following:

To identify what research has been performed and what topics require further investigation in a particular field of knowledge;

To determine the context of the problem;

To recognize the main methodologies and techniques that have been used in the past;

To place the current research project within the historical, methodological and theoretical context of a particular field;

To identify significant aspects of the topic;

To elucidate the implications of the topic;

To offer an alternative perspective;

To discern how the studied subject is structured;

To improve the student’s subject vocabulary in a particular field; and

To characterize the links between theory and practice.

A sound LR translates the postgraduate student’s expertise in academic and scientific writing: it expresses his/her level of comfort with synthesizing ideas ( 11 ). The LR reveals how well the postgraduate student has proceeded in three domains: an effective literature search, the language domain, and critical writing.

Effective literature search

All students should be trained in gathering appropriate data for specific purposes, and information literacy skills are a cornerstone. These skills are defined as “an individual’s ability to know when they need information, to identify information that can help them address the issue or problem at hand, and to locate, evaluate, and use that information effectively” ( 14 ). Librarian support is of vital importance in coaching the appropriate use of Boolean logic (AND, OR, NOT) and other tools for highly efficient literature searches (e.g., quotation marks and truncation), as is the appropriate management of electronic databases.

Language domain

Academic writing must be concise and precise: unnecessary words distract the reader from the essential content ( 15 ). In this context, reading about issues distant from the research topic ( 16 ) may increase students’ general vocabulary and familiarity with grammar. Ultimately, reading diverse materials facilitates and encourages the writing process itself.

Critical writing

Critical judgment includes critical reading, thinking and writing. It supposes a student’s analytical reflection about what he/she has read. The student should delineate the basic elements of the topic, characterize the most relevant claims, identify relationships, and finally contrast those relationships ( 17 ). Each scientific document highlights the perspective of the author, and students will become more confident in judging the supporting evidence and underlying premises of a study and constructing their own counterargument as they read more articles. A paucity of integration or contradictory perspectives indicates lower levels of cognitive complexity ( 12 ).

Thus, while elaborating an LR, the postgraduate student should achieve the highest category of Bloom’s cognitive skills: evaluation ( 12 ). The writer should not only summarize data and understand each topic but also be able to make judgments based on objective criteria, compare resources and findings, identify discrepancies due to methodology, and construct his/her own argument ( 12 ). As a result, the student will be sufficiently confident to show his/her own voice .

Writing a consistent LR is an intense and complex activity that reveals the training and long-lasting academic skills of a writer. It is not a lonely or linear process. However, students are unlikely to be prepared to write an LR if they have not mastered the aforementioned domains ( 10 ). An institutional environment that supports student learning is crucial.

Different institutions employ distinct methods to promote students’ learning processes. First, many universities propose modules to develop behind the scenes activities that enhance self-reflection about general skills (e.g., the skills we have mastered and the skills we need to develop further), behaviors that should be incorporated (e.g., self-criticism about one’s own thoughts), and each student’s role in the advancement of his/her field. Lectures or workshops about LRs themselves are useful because they describe the purposes of the LR and how it fits into the whole picture of a student’s work. These activities may explain what type of discussion an LR must involve, the importance of defining the correct scope, the reasons to include a particular resource, and the main role of critical reading.

Some pedagogic services that promote a continuous improvement in study and academic skills are equally important. Examples include workshops about time management, the accomplishment of personal objectives, active learning, and foreign languages for nonnative speakers. Additionally, opportunities to converse with other students promotes an awareness of others’ experiences and difficulties. Ultimately, the supervisor’s role in providing feedback and setting deadlines is crucial in developing students’ abilities and in strengthening students’ writing quality ( 12 ).

HOW SHOULD A LITERATURE REVIEW BE DEVELOPED?

A consensus on the appropriate method for elaborating an LR is not available, but four main steps are generally accepted: defining the main topic, searching the literature, analyzing the results, and writing ( 6 ). We suggest a fifth step: reflecting on the information that has been written in previous publications ( Figure 2 ).

Figure 2. The five steps in performing a solid LR for dissertations or thesis. The first three steps are divided into subsections, the fourth step suggests writing strategies, and the fifth step comprises some signaling questions to practice and evaluate critical writing. These steps are not a straightforward rule, and previous steps may need to be repeated to improve the quality of the LR.

First step: Defining the main topic

Planning an LR is directly linked to the research main question of the thesis and occurs in parallel to students’ training in the three domains discussed above. The planning stage helps organize ideas, delimit the scope of the LR ( 11 ), and avoid the wasting of time in the process. Planning includes the following steps:

Reflecting on the scope of the LR: postgraduate students will have assumptions about what material must be addressed and what information is not essential to an LR ( 13 , 18 ). Cooper’s Taxonomy of Literature Reviews 2 systematizes the writing process through six characteristics and nonmutually exclusive categories. The focus refers to the reviewer’s most important points of interest, while the goals concern what students want to achieve with the LR. The perspective assumes answers to the student’s own view of the LR and how he/she presents a particular issue. The coverage defines how comprehensive the student is in presenting the literature, and the organization determines the sequence of arguments. The audience is defined as the group for whom the LR is written.

Designating sections and subsections: Headings and subheadings should be specific, explanatory and have a coherent sequence throughout the text ( 4 ). They simulate an inverted pyramid, with an increasing level of reflection and depth of argument.

Identifying keywords: The relevant keywords for each LR section should be listed to guide the literature search. This list should mirror what Hart (1998) ( 3 ) advocates as subject vocabulary . The keywords will also be useful when the student is writing the LR since they guide the reader through the text.

Delineating the time interval and language of documents to be retrieved in the second step. The most recently published documents should be considered, but relevant texts published before a predefined cutoff year can be included if they are classic documents in that field. Extra care should be employed when translating documents.

Second step: Searching the literature

The ability to gather adequate information from the literature must be addressed in postgraduate programs. Librarian support is important, particularly for accessing difficult texts. This step comprises the following components:

Searching the literature itself: This process consists of defining which databases (electronic or dissertation/thesis repositories), official documents, and books will be searched and then actively conducting the search. Information literacy skills have a central role in this stage. While searching electronic databases, controlled vocabulary (e.g., Medical Subject Headings, or MeSH, for the PubMed database) or specific standardized syntax rules may need to be applied.

In addition, two other approaches are suggested. First, a review of the reference list of each document might be useful for identifying relevant publications to be included and important opinions to be assessed. This step is also relevant for referencing the original studies and leading authors in that field. Moreover, students can directly contact the experts on a particular topic to consult with them regarding their experience or use them as a source of additional unpublished documents.

Before submitting a dissertation/thesis, the electronic search strategy should be repeated. This process will ensure that the most recently published papers will be considered in the LR.

Selecting documents for inclusion: Generally, the most recent literature will be included in the form of published peer-reviewed papers. Assess books and unpublished material, such as conference abstracts, academic texts and government reports, are also important to assess since the gray literature also offers valuable information. However, since these materials are not peer-reviewed, we recommend that they are carefully added to the LR.

This task is an important exercise in time management. First, students should read the title and abstract to understand whether that document suits their purposes, addresses the research question, and helps develop the topic of interest. Then, they should scan the full text, determine how it is structured, group it with similar documents, and verify whether other arguments might be considered ( 5 ).

Third step: Analyzing the results

Critical reading and thinking skills are important in this step. This step consists of the following components:

Reading documents: The student may read various texts in depth according to LR sections and subsections ( defining the main topic ), which is not a passive activity ( 1 ). Some questions should be asked to practice critical analysis skills, as listed below. Is the research question evident and articulated with previous knowledge? What are the authors’ research goals and theoretical orientations, and how do they interact? Are the authors’ claims related to other scholars’ research? Do the authors consider different perspectives? Was the research project designed and conducted properly? Are the results and discussion plausible, and are they consistent with the research objectives and methodology? What are the strengths and limitations of this work? How do the authors support their findings? How does this work contribute to the current research topic? ( 1 , 19 )

Taking notes: Students who systematically take notes on each document are more readily able to establish similarities or differences with other documents and to highlight personal observations. This approach reinforces the student’s ideas about the next step and helps develop his/her own academic voice ( 1 , 13 ). Voice recognition software ( 16 ), mind maps ( 5 ), flowcharts, tables, spreadsheets, personal comments on the referenced texts, and note-taking apps are all available tools for managing these observations, and the student him/herself should use the tool that best improves his/her learning. Additionally, when a student is considering submitting an LR to a peer-reviewed journal, notes should be taken on the activities performed in all five steps to ensure that they are able to be replicated.

Fourth step: Writing

The recognition of when a student is able and ready to write after a sufficient period of reading and thinking is likely a difficult task. Some students can produce a review in a single long work session. However, as discussed above, writing is not a linear process, and students do not need to write LRs according to a specific sequence of sections. Writing an LR is a time-consuming task, and some scholars believe that a period of at least six months is sufficient ( 6 ). An LR, and academic writing in general, expresses the writer’s proper thoughts, conclusions about others’ work ( 6 , 10 , 13 , 16 ), and decisions about methods to progress in the chosen field of knowledge. Thus, each student is expected to present a different learning and writing trajectory.

In this step, writing methods should be considered; then, editing, citing and correct referencing should complete this stage, at least temporarily. Freewriting techniques may be a good starting point for brainstorming ideas and improving the understanding of the information that has been read ( 1 ). Students should consider the following parameters when creating an agenda for writing the LR: two-hour writing blocks (at minimum), with prespecified tasks that are possible to complete in one section; short (minutes) and long breaks (days or weeks) to allow sufficient time for mental rest and reflection; and short- and long-term goals to motivate the writing itself ( 20 ). With increasing experience, this scheme can vary widely, and it is not a straightforward rule. Importantly, each discipline has a different way of writing ( 1 ), and each department has its own preferred styles for citations and references.

Fifth step: Reflecting on the writing

In this step, the postgraduate student should ask him/herself the same questions as in the analyzing the results step, which can take more time than anticipated. Ambiguities, repeated ideas, and a lack of coherence may not be noted when the student is immersed in the writing task for long periods. The whole effort will likely be a work in progress, and continuous refinements in the written material will occur once the writing process has begun.

LITERATURE REVIEW CHECKLIST

In contrast to review papers, the LR of a dissertation/thesis should not be a standalone piece or work. Instead, it should present the student as a scholar and should maintain the interest of the audience in how that dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field.

A checklist for evaluating an LR is convenient for students’ continuous academic development and research transparency: it clearly states the desired achievements for the LR of a dissertation/thesis. Here, we present an LR checklist developed from an LR scoring rubric ( 11 ). For a critical analysis of an LR, we maintain the five categories but offer twelve criteria that are not scaled ( Figure 3 ). The criteria all have the same importance and are not mutually exclusive.

Figure 3. The LR checklist comprises 12 criteria that should ideally be present in the LR section of a dissertation or thesis. Some signaling questions (SQ) are listed below each criterion to facilitate the judgment of whether a particular item was achieved. The checklist represents the learning outcomes of the LR.

First category: Coverage

1. justified criteria exist for the inclusion and exclusion of literature in the review.

This criterion builds on the main topic and areas covered by the LR ( 18 ). While experts may be confident in retrieving and selecting literature, postgraduate students must convince their audience about the adequacy of their search strategy and their reasons for intentionally selecting what material to cover ( 11 ). References from different fields of knowledge provide distinct perspective, but narrowing the scope of coverage may be important in areas with a large body of existing knowledge.

Second category: Synthesis

2. a critical examination of the state of the field exists.

A critical examination is an assessment of distinct aspects in the field ( 1 ) along with a constructive argument. It is not a negative critique but an expression of the student’s understanding of how other scholars have added to the topic ( 1 ), and the student should analyze and contextualize contradictory statements. A writer’s personal bias (beliefs or political involvement) have been shown to influence the structure and writing of a document; therefore, the cultural and paradigmatic background guide how the theories are revised and presented ( 13 ). However, an honest judgment is important when considering different perspectives.

3. The topic or problem is clearly placed in the context of the broader scholarly literature

The broader scholarly literature should be related to the chosen main topic for the LR ( how to develop the literature review section). The LR can cover the literature from one or more disciplines, depending on its scope, but it should always offer a new perspective. In addition, students should be careful in citing and referencing previous publications. As a rule, original studies and primary references should generally be included. Systematic and narrative reviews present summarized data, and it may be important to cite them, particularly for issues that should be understood but do not require a detailed description. Similarly, quotations highlight the exact statement from another publication. However, excessive referencing may disclose lower levels of analysis and synthesis by the student.

4. The LR is critically placed in the historical context of the field

Situating the LR in its historical context shows the level of comfort of the student in addressing a particular topic. Instead of only presenting statements and theories in a temporal approach, which occasionally follows a linear timeline, the LR should authentically characterize the student’s academic work in the state-of-art techniques in their particular field of knowledge. Thus, the LR should reinforce why the dissertation/thesis represents original work in the chosen research field.

5. Ambiguities in definitions are considered and resolved

Distinct theories on the same topic may exist in different disciplines, and one discipline may consider multiple concepts to explain one topic. These misunderstandings should be addressed and contemplated. The LR should not synthesize all theories or concepts at the same time. Although this approach might demonstrate in-depth reading on a particular topic, it can reveal a student’s inability to comprehend and synthesize his/her research problem.

6. Important variables and phenomena relevant to the topic are articulated

The LR is a unique opportunity to articulate ideas and arguments and to purpose new relationships between them ( 10 , 11 ). More importantly, a sound LR will outline to the audience how these important variables and phenomena will be addressed in the current academic work. Indeed, the LR should build a bidirectional link with the remaining sections and ground the connections between all of the sections ( Figure 1 ).

7. A synthesized new perspective on the literature has been established

The LR is a ‘creative inquiry’ ( 13 ) in which the student elaborates his/her own discourse, builds on previous knowledge in the field, and describes his/her own perspective while interpreting others’ work ( 13 , 17 ). Thus, students should articulate the current knowledge, not accept the results at face value ( 11 , 13 , 17 ), and improve their own cognitive abilities ( 12 ).

Third category: Methodology

8. the main methodologies and research techniques that have been used in the field are identified and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed.

The LR is expected to distinguish the research that has been completed from investigations that remain to be performed, address the benefits and limitations of the main methods applied to date, and consider the strategies for addressing the expected limitations described above. While placing his/her research within the methodological context of a particular topic, the LR will justify the methodology of the study and substantiate the student’s interpretations.

9. Ideas and theories in the field are related to research methodologies

The audience expects the writer to analyze and synthesize methodological approaches in the field. The findings should be explained according to the strengths and limitations of previous research methods, and students must avoid interpretations that are not supported by the analyzed literature. This criterion translates to the student’s comprehension of the applicability and types of answers provided by different research methodologies, even those using a quantitative or qualitative research approach.

Fourth category: Significance

10. the scholarly significance of the research problem is rationalized.

The LR is an introductory section of a dissertation/thesis and will present the postgraduate student as a scholar in a particular field ( 11 ). Therefore, the LR should discuss how the research problem is currently addressed in the discipline being investigated or in different disciplines, depending on the scope of the LR. The LR explains the academic paradigms in the topic of interest ( 13 ) and methods to advance the field from these starting points. However, an excess number of personal citations—whether referencing the student’s research or studies by his/her research team—may reflect a narrow literature search and a lack of comprehensive synthesis of ideas and arguments.

11. The practical significance of the research problem is rationalized

The practical significance indicates a student’s comprehensive understanding of research terminology (e.g., risk versus associated factor), methodology (e.g., efficacy versus effectiveness) and plausible interpretations in the context of the field. Notably, the academic argument about a topic may not always reflect the debate in real life terms. For example, using a quantitative approach in epidemiology, statistically significant differences between groups do not explain all of the factors involved in a particular problem ( 21 ). Therefore, excessive faith in p -values may reflect lower levels of critical evaluation of the context and implications of a research problem by the student.

Fifth category: Rhetoric

12. the lr was written with a coherent, clear structure that supported the review.

This category strictly relates to the language domain: the text should be coherent and presented in a logical sequence, regardless of which organizational ( 18 ) approach is chosen. The beginning of each section/subsection should state what themes will be addressed, paragraphs should be carefully linked to each other ( 10 ), and the first sentence of each paragraph should generally summarize the content. Additionally, the student’s statements are clear, sound, and linked to other scholars’ works, and precise and concise language that follows standardized writing conventions (e.g., in terms of active/passive voice and verb tenses) is used. Attention to grammar, such as orthography and punctuation, indicates prudence and supports a robust dissertation/thesis. Ultimately, all of these strategies provide fluency and consistency for the text.

Although the scoring rubric was initially proposed for postgraduate programs in education research, we are convinced that this checklist is a valuable tool for all academic areas. It enables the monitoring of students’ learning curves and a concentrated effort on any criteria that are not yet achieved. For institutions, the checklist is a guide to support supervisors’ feedback, improve students’ writing skills, and highlight the learning goals of each program. These criteria do not form a linear sequence, but ideally, all twelve achievements should be perceived in the LR.

CONCLUSIONS

A single correct method to classify, evaluate and guide the elaboration of an LR has not been established. In this essay, we have suggested directions for planning, structuring and critically evaluating an LR. The planning of the scope of an LR and approaches to complete it is a valuable effort, and the five steps represent a rational starting point. An institutional environment devoted to active learning will support students in continuously reflecting on LRs, which will form a dialogue between the writer and the current literature in a particular field ( 13 ).

The completion of an LR is a challenging and necessary process for understanding one’s own field of expertise. Knowledge is always transitory, but our responsibility as scholars is to provide a critical contribution to our field, allowing others to think through our work. Good researchers are grounded in sophisticated LRs, which reveal a writer’s training and long-lasting academic skills. We recommend using the LR checklist as a tool for strengthening the skills necessary for critical academic writing.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Leite DFB has initially conceived the idea and has written the first draft of this review. Padilha MAS and Cecatti JG have supervised data interpretation and critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read the draft and agreed with this submission. Authors are responsible for all aspects of this academic piece.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are grateful to all of the professors of the ‘Getting Started with Graduate Research and Generic Skills’ module at University College Cork, Cork, Ireland, for suggesting and supporting this article. Funding: DFBL has granted scholarship from Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES) to take part of her Ph.D. studies in Ireland (process number 88881.134512/2016-01). There is no participation from sponsors on authors’ decision to write or to submit this manuscript.

No potential conflict of interest was reported.

The questions posed in systematic reviews usually follow the ‘PICOS’ acronym: Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, Study design.

In 1988, Cooper proposed a taxonomy that aims to facilitate students’ and institutions’ understanding of literature reviews. Six characteristics with specific categories are briefly described: Focus: research outcomes, research methodologies, theories, or practices and applications; Goals: integration (generalization, conflict resolution, and linguistic bridge-building), criticism, or identification of central issues; Perspective: neutral representation or espousal of a position; Coverage: exhaustive, exhaustive with selective citations, representative, central or pivotal; Organization: historical, conceptual, or methodological; and Audience: specialized scholars, general scholars, practitioners or policymakers, or the general public.

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150 Literature Research Topics and Ideas in 2025

Literature research topics continue to evolve as we approach 2025, reflecting the changing landscape of literary studies and the world around us. This comprehensive guide offers 150 exciting literature research topics and ideas for students, scholars, and enthusiasts alike. From classic themes to contemporary issues, these topics span various genres, periods, and cultural contexts, providing ample opportunities for in-depth exploration and analysis.

Whether you’re working on a thesis, dissertation, or simply looking to expand your literary horizons, these literature research topics will inspire your academic journey and contribute to the ever-growing field of literary studies.

What You'll Learn

Classic Literature Research Topics

Classic literature research topics remain relevant and continue to offer rich ground for exploration. These timeless works provide insights into human nature, historical contexts, and enduring themes that resonate across generations. Some compelling literature research topics in this category include:

• The evolution of the hero’s journey in Greek mythology
• Shakespeare’s use of metaphor and symbolism in his sonnets
• The role of social class in Jane Austen’s novels
• Gothic elements in Emily Brontë’s “Wuthering Heights”
• The concept of morality in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”

These literature research topics allow scholars to delve into the foundations of literary tradition, examining how classic works have shaped contemporary literature and continue to influence modern readers and writers.

Contemporary Literature Research Topics

As we approach 2025, contemporary literature research topics reflect the rapidly changing world and its impact on literary expression. These topics often intersect with current social, political, and technological issues, offering fresh perspectives on the human experience. Some engaging literature research topics in this area include:

• The rise of cli-fi (climate fiction) and its impact on environmental awareness
• Representation of artificial intelligence in 21st-century novels
• The influence of social media on narrative structures in contemporary fiction
• Exploration of identity and intersectionality in modern LGBTQ+ literature
• The role of magical realism in addressing political issues in Latin American literature

By exploring these literature research topics, scholars can contribute to ongoing discussions about the evolving nature of literature and its relationship to contemporary society.

Comparative Literature Research Topics

Comparative literature research topics offer opportunities to explore connections between different literary traditions, cultures, and time periods. These topics encourage interdisciplinary approaches and can reveal fascinating insights into the global nature of literary expression. Some intriguing literature research topics for comparative study include:

• East-West literary exchanges: Influence of Japanese haiku on Western poetry
• Comparative analysis of creation myths across different cultures
• The evolution of the detective genre in American and British literature
• Postcolonial themes in African and Caribbean literature
• Representations of war in 20th-century European and Asian novels

These literature research topics promote cross-cultural understanding and highlight the interconnectedness of global literary traditions.

Genre-Specific Literature Research Topics

Focusing on specific genres can yield rich literature research topics that delve into the unique characteristics and evolution of different literary forms. From poetry to science fiction, each genre offers a wealth of research opportunities. Consider these literature research topics:

• The role of unreliable narrators in contemporary mystery novels
• Evolution of form and structure in experimental poetry
• Exploration of gender roles in romance literature
• The use of allegory in modern fantasy fiction
• The influence of true crime on contemporary thriller novels

These genre-specific literature research topics allow for in-depth analysis of literary conventions, reader expectations, and the ways in which genres adapt to changing cultural contexts.

Interdisciplinary Literature Research Topics

Interdisciplinary approaches to literature research topics can reveal fascinating connections between literature and other fields of study. These topics often provide fresh perspectives and can lead to innovative research. Some thought-provoking interdisciplinary literature research topics include:

• The intersection of neuroscience and stream-of-consciousness narratives
• Ecological themes in contemporary poetry and their scientific foundations
• The influence of psychoanalysis on character development in modernist literature
• Mathematical structures and patterns in experimental fiction
• The role of literature in shaping historical narratives and collective memory

By exploring these interdisciplinary literature research topics, scholars can contribute to a broader understanding of literature’s place in the wider academic and cultural landscape.

Digital Humanities and Literature Research Topics

As technology continues to shape literary studies, digital humanities offer exciting new avenues for literature research topics. These approaches combine traditional literary analysis with digital tools and methodologies. Some innovative literature research topics in this area include:

• Text mining and sentiment analysis in large corpora of 19th-century novels
• The impact of e-books and digital publishing on narrative structures
• Virtual reality adaptations of classic literature: immersive storytelling techniques
• Social network analysis of character relationships in complex narratives
• The role of online fan communities in shaping contemporary literary interpretation

These literature research topics demonstrate the potential of digital tools to enhance our understanding of literary works and their cultural contexts.

Emerging Trends in Literature Research Topics

As we look towards 2025, several emerging trends are shaping new literature research topics. These topics reflect changing societal values, technological advancements, and evolving literary forms. Some cutting-edge literature research topics to consider include:

• The rise of micro-fiction and its impact on narrative craft
• Representation of non-binary and genderqueer identities in contemporary literature
• The influence of video game narratives on traditional storytelling techniques
• Exploration of post-pandemic themes in global literature
• The role of AI-generated text in shaping future literary forms

By engaging with these emerging literature research topics, scholars can contribute to the ongoing evolution of literary studies and anticipate future trends in the field.

Related Article; Topics For Literature Based Research Paper

How to choose a research topic in literature?

To choose a research topic in literature, consider your interests, current trends in literary studies, and gaps in existing research. Start by reading widely in your area of interest, noting questions or themes that intrigue you. Consult with professors or peers, and review recent academic journals to identify potential research areas. Ensure your topic is specific enough to be manageable but broad enough to contribute meaningfully to the field.

How do you find a research topic for a literature review?

To find a research topic for a literature review, begin by identifying a broad area of interest within literature. Then, conduct preliminary research to familiarize yourself with key debates, theories, and gaps in the existing literature. Look for patterns, contradictions, or unanswered questions in your readings. Consider current trends and emerging issues in literary studies. Narrow your focus to a specific aspect or question that can be thoroughly explored within the scope of your review.

What are the topics mostly discussed in literature?

Literature encompasses a wide range of topics, but some of the most frequently discussed include:

• Love, relationships, and human emotions
• Identity and self-discovery
• Social issues and injustice
• Power dynamics and politics
• Nature and the environment
• Technology and its impact on society
• War and conflict
• Death and mortality
• Cultural clashes and diversity
• The human condition and existential questions

What are the topics for literary studies?

Literary studies cover a broad spectrum of topics, including:

• Literary theory and criticism
• Genre studies (e.g., poetry, drama, fiction)
• Historical periods in literature
• Comparative literature
• World literature
• Digital humanities in literary studies
• Gender and sexuality in literature
• Postcolonial literature
• Ecocriticism and environmental literature
• Psychoanalytic approaches to literature

These topics provide a foundation for various research directions within literary studies.

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• Open access
• Published: 18 October 2024

Determinants of nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning

• Eman Arafa Hassan 1 ,
• Ahlam Mahmoud Mohamed 2 ,
• Fatma Abdou Eltaib 3 &
• Asmaa Mohammed Saad Khaled 2  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  766 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Blended learning, a pedagogical approach combining traditional classroom instruction with online components, has gained prominence in nursing education. While offering numerous benefits, student satisfaction with blended learning remains a critical concern. This study contributes to the existing literature by providing a comprehensive evaluation of the determinants influencing nursing students’ satisfaction with this innovative educational modality. By examining a wide range of factors, including sociodemographic characteristics, academic factors, and environmental influences, this research offers valuable insights for educators to optimize blended learning experiences in nursing education.

A descriptive cross-sectional research design was conducted. This study investigates the factors influencing nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning at Alexandria University, Egypt, where blended learning programs have been integrated into the curriculum primarily through the Microsoft Teams platform. A convenient sample of 1266 nursing students from both bachelor and technical educational institutions participated in the study from September 2023 to the end of December 2023. Data were collected using an online survey containing two measurement tools: the Blended Learning Satisfaction Scale and the Environmental Facilitators and Barriers to Student Persistence in Online Courses scale. Statistical analyses, including descriptive statistics and backward multiple linear regression, were conducted to identify factors that are associated with the satisfaction of nursing students’ with blended learning.

Findings indicate that factors such as age, gender, income, employment status, access to suitable internet sources, academic year, computer literacy, preferred learning method, and perceptions of environmental facilitators significantly influence satisfaction scores (all p  < 0.001). The overall regression model, with an adjusted R² of 0.31, signifies that 31% of the variance in satisfaction scores is explained collectively by the previously mentioned variables (F = 21.21, p  < 0.001).

Students’ sociodemographic variables, preference for blended learning, and perception of environmental facilitators such as encouragement to enroll in the course significantly influence nursing students’ satisfaction levels with blended learning. However, limitations in the current study such as self-report bias, convenient sampling, and cross-sectional design limit the generalizability and causal inferences of these findings.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

In the rapidly evolving landscape of higher education, universities globally are embracing virtual learning environments, leading to the widespread adoption of blended learning that combines online and face-to-face instruction [ 1 ]. The integration of learning management systems and the use of information and communication technologies have become integral aspects of students’ lives [ 2 , 3 ]. The transformative impact of technology on education was further accelerated by the global pandemic, compelling institutions to swiftly shift to distance and online learning due to the imposition of national lockdowns [ 4 , 5 ].

Blended learning manifests in various forms, including web courses, web enhancement courses, and web-centric courses [ 6 ]. Each method has its unique characteristics, blending online and face-to-face elements to different extents [ 7 ]. The role of educators in the blended learning model assumes a multifaceted dimension, encompassing roles as facilitators, motivators, mentors, and counselors. This approach emphasizes a collaborative learning environment where teachers act as friends, both online and offline, fostering an open and flexible learning experience aligned with students’ needs [ 8 , 9 ].

In the context of nursing education, blended learning integrates theoretical knowledge with practical application, utilizing a variety of resources such as virtual simulations, interactive modules, and instructor-led discussions [ 10 ]. This approach not only accommodates diverse learning styles but also fosters self-directed learning and critical thinking skills essential for nursing practice in today’s complex healthcare environment [ 11 ]. By seamlessly blending technology with traditional classroom instruction, blended learning in nursing education enhances accessibility, flexibility, and engagement, ultimately contributing to students’ satisfaction and competency development [ 12 ].

The significance of understanding the determinants of nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning becomes paramount. Blended learning necessitates the effective utilization of technology, considers learner characteristics, and relies on participants’ commitment [ 13 , 14 ]. Factors such as computer competency, social and family support, workload management, age, gender, and attitude emerge as crucial elements in the context of higher educational institutions [ 15 ]. Moreover, the innovative pedagogy and instructional design supporting blended learning emphasize its potential to reshape traditional education paradigms [ 16 , 17 ].

Previous studies have acknowledged the multifaceted nature of student satisfaction, emphasizing the intricate interplay of diverse factors. The literature suggests that factors such as instructional design, course content relevance, and the quality of online and face-to-face interactions significantly influence student satisfaction in blended learning environments [ 15 , 18 ]. Additionally, the perceived effectiveness of assessment methods and the alignment of learning objectives with students’ professional goals have been identified as critical components shaping students’ satisfaction in blended learning settings [ 15 , 19 ].

In this dynamic educational experience, student satisfaction has emerged as a critical concern for higher education sponsors operating in an increasingly competitive market. It has become an integral component of quality assurance and quality enhancement efforts [ 20 , 21 ]. The level of learner satisfaction, reflecting attitudes and feelings towards the advantages of blended learning classrooms, plays a pivotal role in gauging the effectiveness of this educational approach [ 22 ].

Despite the wealth of research exploring general student satisfaction in blended learning, there remains a discernible gap in the specific context of nursing education. Nursing students constitute a unique cohort with distinct educational needs and professional expectations. The scant literature addressing nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning emphasizes the need for a targeted investigation into the determinants that resonate within this specialized field. Understanding the factors that influence nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning is crucial for educational institutions striving to tailor their programs to meet the evolving demands of the healthcare sector [ 23 , 24 ]. Therefore, this study aims to meticulously assess the determinants of nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning, contributing valuable insights to the ongoing discourse on the effectiveness and optimization of blended learning methodologies in nursing education.

This study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the determinants influencing nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning.

A cross-sectional research design was applied in this study.

This study was conducted within the academic institutions of Alexandria University, specifically the Faculty of Nursing and the affiliated Technical Institute of Nursing in Alexandria, Egypt. The Faculty of Nursing at Alexandria University stands as a center for nursing education, fostering academic excellence and professional development. The Technical Institute of Nursing, closely affiliated with the university, complements this academic ecosystem by providing specialized technical training in nursing.

Within this dynamic academic setting, blended learning has been seamlessly integrated into the educational fabric, predominantly utilizing the Microsoft Teams platform. Blended learning methods, such as web courses, web enhancement courses, and web-centric courses, have become prevalent, enhancing the learning experience for nursing students. Microsoft Teams serves as a versatile platform for online lectures, offline lectures, assignments, quizzes, and video resources supporting nursing education. This integration highlights the commitment to providing a comprehensive and interactive learning environment that seamlessly combines face-to-face and online elements.

Participants

A convenient sample of 1266 nursing students from both bachelor and technical educational institutions were included in this study, representing diverse cohorts across different semesters. The inclusion of students from various semesters ensures a comprehensive understanding of satisfaction determinants throughout the academic progression. The exclusion criteria were students who are not currently enrolled in nursing programs or those who do not consent to participate in the study. All nursing students included in this study, both bachelor’s and technical nursing education students, had completed at least one blended nursing course. By September 2023, the start of data collection for this study, all nursing students affiliated with Alexandria University had completed at least one nursing course with a blended learning component. Blended learning was initially adopted in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and has continued to be integrated into many nursing courses at Alexandria University.

Power Analysis and Sample Size (PASS) program version 20 was employed for sample size estimation, incorporating a power analysis. The minimum sample size was determined based on a power of 90%, a level of significance set at 0.05, and a minimum sample size of 1000. To enhance precision, a moderate effect size, based on prior research [ 25 , 26 ] and expert judgment, was included in the calculation. Additionally, expected variability, crucial for accurate sample size estimation, was considered. The chosen multivariate regression model, accounting for multiple predictors, was also factored into the estimation. Potential dropout or non-response rates were carefully considered to ensure the study’s robustness against these challenges.

Measurement tools

In the current study, we utilized two standardized tools, with permission, in their original English versions. Tool one was used to assess nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning [ 27 ], while tool two aimed to evaluate the environmental facilitators and barriers affecting persistence in blended learning courses, particularly in its online aspect [ 28 ]. These tools were previously validated in their original studies. Furthermore, they were revalidated in the current study to ensure their relevance to the study’s aims and appropriateness for Egyptian nursing students. This revalidation followed a pilot study involving 56 Egyptian nursing students and incorporated evaluations from eleven nursing education experts regarding the tools.

Tool one is “Blended Learning Satisfaction Scale (BLSS)”. This scale was developed by Zeqiri et al. (2021) [ 27 ] to assess nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning. This scale comprises thirteen statements across four domains: course management (four statements), interaction (three statements), performance (three statements), and satisfaction (three statements). Statements are rated on a 5-point Likert scale, one (strongly disagree) to five (strongly agree). The total score ranges from 13 to 65, with a higher total score representing a higher level of satisfaction.

The scale internal consistency of Cronbach’s test ranges from 0.715 to 0.931 in its original report [ 27 ]. We assessed whether the tool effectively measures the theoretical constructs it is intended to evaluate within the Egyptian context. Utilizing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), we found that all items had factor loadings exceeding 0.5, demonstrating a strong positive correlation with their underlying constructs. Additionally, we ensured face and content validity, achieving a content validity index greater than 0.90 for each domain. The reliability of the tool, as measured by Cronbach’s alpha, ranged from 0.78 to 0.92 in this study.

Tool two is “The environmental Facilitators and Barriers to Student Persistence in Online Courses”. This tool was developed by Heilporn and Lakhal (2022) [ 28 ] to measure the environmental facilitators and barriers encountered by students. This tool, originally designed for assessing student persistence in online courses, was adapted to the context of blended learning for this study.

The tool is composed of 16 items and utilizes a 5-point Likert scale used to rate each statement coded from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”. The total score ranges from 16 to 80, with a higher total score representing a highly perceived facilitator to continue in the courses. It consists of four domains: Encouragements (five statements), Time to Events (four statements), Potential Dropout (five statements), and Cost-Benefit (two statements). While the tool’s original focus was on online courses, many of its statements, such as those related to encouragements, time-events, and potential dropout, are directly relevant to the facilitators and barriers that nursing students might face in a blended learning environment.

In a prior study, the tool’s Cronbach’s alpha ranged from 0.79 to 0.87 28 . In the current study, we conducted a CFA to ensure that this tool effectively captures the constructs of blended learning facilitators and barriers within the Egyptian blended learning context. The analysis revealed factor loadings exceeding 0.62 for each item, which is considered acceptable. Additionally, we performed a principal component analysis (PCA) to verify the underlying structure of the domains. The PCA confirmed the suitability of the four domains of facilitators and barriers, with eigenvalues exceeding one and explaining a cumulative variance of 58.27% of the total variance. Moreover, the content validity index of the tool was 0.92, and the Cronbach’s alpha reliability for all domains ranged from 0.82 to 0.89.

The socio-demographic characteristics of students (e.g., age, gender, income, residence working, level of study, academic year, CGPA), as well as the availability of suitable internet sources and suitable electronic device on which the students studied, computer literacy, and preferable method of learning, were attached to the survey. The survey is provided as a supplementary file S1 .

Data collection

Data collection was started from the beginning of September 2023 to the end of December 2023. The researchers communicated with the selected students over the phone and a voice message was sent on WhatsApp groups to explain the aim of the study. The data was collected through sharing a questionnaire using online Google Forms, and the questionnaire link sent among specific WhatsApp application groups for communication between students. The researchers asked the team leaders to help in sharing the questionnaire link among their WhatsApp groups. To reduce the missing data, the students were mandatory to fill all the items in the online questionnaire or else could not reach the next page; a notification box indicating a warning reminder that one or more items were not answered. After completing the questionnaire, the students were directed to click the submitted option and finally, the online questionnaire was sent to the drive.

Ethical considerations

Approval from the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Nursing, Alexandria University, was obtained (Institutional Review Board: IRB00013620). After explaining the study’s purpose, all participants were provided with informed written online consent for participation by clicking agree to participate button at the beginning of the electronic questionnaire. The researchers emphasized participants’ rights to voluntarily participate, refuse, or withdraw from the study at the beginning of the online questionnaire. To ensure data confidentiality, the online survey was conducted anonymously. No personal identifiers such as names, codes, or email addresses were required in the online forms. The collected data were stored on a secure, password-protected Google drive that is not accessible to unauthorized individuals. Only authorized research team members had access to the collected data. This work has been carried out in accordance with The Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki) on Human participants.

Statistical analysis

The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 28) was utilized for both data presentation and statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics, including number, percentage, means, and standard deviation (SD), were used to describe the socio-demographic characteristics, students’ satisfaction with blended learning, and environmental facilitators and barriers to student persistence in online courses. A backward multiple linear regression model was used to identify factors associated with nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning. All the statistical analyses were considered significant at P   ≤  0.05.

Table  1 illustrates the sociodemographic and learning characteristics of the 1266 nursing student participants, offering insights into the composition of the study’s sample. The mean age of the students was 20.47 years, demonstrating a relatively homogeneous age distribution with a low standard deviation (± 1.82). The gender distribution reveals a notable majority of female students (67.5%) compared to their male counterparts (32.5%). In terms of residency, approximately two-thirds of the participants reside in urban areas (64.8%), while the remaining third is from rural backgrounds (35.2%). Financially, 58.1% of students report having enough income, indicating a measure of financial stability within the cohort. A significant portion of the students (59.7%) is engaged in employment, suggesting a balance between academic pursuits and work responsibilities.

Examining the learning environment and resources, it is noteworthy that an overwhelming majority of students (96.2%) have access to a suitable internet source, emphasizing the ubiquity of internet connectivity among the participants. Additionally, a substantial percentage (93.4%) possess suitable electronic devices for study purposes, ensuring accessibility to online learning resources. In terms of academic pursuits, the majority of students are pursuing a Bachelor’s degree (67.3%), while the remaining 32.7% are enrolled in technical degree programs. The mean Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) of 3.64 ± 2.71 provides an overview of the academic performance of the participants, reflecting a moderate level of achievement.

The distribution of students in Fig.  1 across academic years demonstrates a balanced representation, with the highest proportion in the first year (32.5%) and a gradual decline in subsequent years. Concerning technology proficiency, Fig.  2 shows that the majority of students report intermediate computer literacy (46.8%), while a notable percentage claim expertise (35.7). Lastly, Fig.  3 revealed that the preferred method of learning among participants is diverse, with a significant interest in online learning (42.8%) and blended learning (35.6%), alongside a smaller preference for face-to-face instruction (21.6%).

Distribution of students according to their academic year

Distribution of students according to their computer literacy

Distribution of students according to their preferable method of learning

Table  2 provides an overview of nursing students’ satisfaction with various aspects of blended learning, with mean scores and standard deviations indicating the level of agreement or disagreement. Examining specific satisfaction items, the data reveals that student’s rate of “Interaction during the courses” is the highest, with a mean score of 3.62 ± 0.88. This relatively low standard deviation suggests a consensus among students regarding positive interaction experiences. On the other hand, “Course Management” and “Performance in the courses” receive lower mean scores of 2.69 ± 1.01 and 2.78 ± 1.08, respectively, accompanied by higher standard deviations, indicating more varied opinions. The overall “Satisfaction with blended learning” mean score of 3.21 ± 0.93 suggests a moderate level of contentment, while “Overall satisfaction” with a mean score of 3.07 ± 0.49 and a low standard deviation indicates a relatively consistent level of satisfaction across students.

Table  3 shows nursing students’ perceptions of environmental facilitators to blended learning, offering insights into factors that contribute to their learning experience. Notably, students express a high level of agreement with “Encouragements to enroll in blended learning courses,” as evidenced by a mean score of 3.99 and a moderate standard deviation of 0.85, highlighting positive support structures. Additionally, the flexibility of “Time and events of blended learning courses” is acknowledged, though with a lower mean score of 3.31 and a higher standard deviation of 0.98, indicating some variability in opinions. Students perceive the “Potential of dropout in blended learning” and the “Cost-benefit of blended learning courses” with mean scores of 3.48 ± 1.08 and 3.70 ± 0.01, respectively, suggesting moderate agreement with these factors. The overall agreement on facilitators and barriers, with a mean score of 3.62 and a low standard deviation of 0.47, indicates a generally consistent viewpoint among students regarding the factors influencing their blended learning experience.

Figure  4 of the scattered plot of multiple linear regression provide the predictor estimated against the students’ blended learning satisfaction. The plots in linear line indicating all the predictors involved in this model have p-values less than 0.05, indicating they are statistically significant in predicting satisfaction scores.

Scattered plot of multiple linear regression for estimated against the students’ blended learning satisfaction

The multiple linear regression model of Table  4 identified factors influencing nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning. Age exhibits a modest negative association with satisfaction scores (B = -0.04, p  = 0.048), suggesting that, within the 95% confidence interval (-0.06 to -0.03), as students’ age increases, satisfaction marginally decreases. Female students express higher satisfaction (B = 0.25, p  = 0.037) compared to their male counterparts, with a 95% confidence interval of 0.34 to 0.86. Income has a significant negative impact (B = -0.88, p  = 0.033), indicating that, within the 95% confidence interval (-0.98 to -0.26), lower income is associated with lower satisfaction scores.

Conversely, employed students (B = 0.62, p  = 0.040) exhibit higher satisfaction, possibly due to a sense of accomplishment or additional resources gained from employment. Access to a suitable internet source (B = 0.45, p  = 0.029) positively influences satisfaction, with a 95% confidence interval of 0.53 to 0.80, emphasizing the importance of internet accessibility. Higher academic years (B = 0.47, p  = 0.028), within a 95% confidence interval of 0.18 to 0.61, and computer literacy (Std beta = 0.90, p  = 0.015), within a 95% confidence interval of 0.89 to 1.41, are both linked to increased satisfaction scores, highlighting positive adaptation and technological proficiency.

Notably, students who prefer blended learning (B = 1.11, p  = 0.006), within a 95% confidence interval of 1.02 to 1.44, and receive encouragement to enroll (B = 0.46, p  = 0.010), within a 95% confidence interval of 0.05 to 0.65, demonstrate significantly higher satisfaction. The flexibility of time and events in blended learning (B = 0.52, p  = 0.035), within a 95% confidence interval of 0.21 to 0.54, positively influences satisfaction, as does the perceived cost-benefit of blended courses (B = 0.42, p  = 0.013), within a 95% confidence interval of 0.08 to 0.60.

The overall model, with an adjusted R² of 0.31, signifies that 31% of the variance in satisfaction scores is explained collectively by the included variables. The statistically significant F-value of 21.21 ( p  < 0.001) highlights the overall significance of the model, reinforcing its predictive power.

Blended learning has become a dynamic educational approach, combining traditional face-to-face instruction with online elements, creating a flexible and interactive environment for students [ 12 ]. This study assessed nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning in academic institutions. The assessment covers various aspects, from students’ perceptions of course interactions and management to their understanding of environmental facilitators. Additionally, we use a robust multiple linear regression model to analyze the complex network of factors affecting satisfaction. The ultimate goal is to offer practical insights for educators, institutions, and policymakers looking to enhance blended learning experiences for nursing students, promoting a more personalized and responsive approach to modern pedagogy.

In assessing nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning, the findings presented in the current study offer insights into various dimensions of their blended satisfaction experience. Notably, students uniformly express a positive attitude toward interaction during the courses, suggesting a consensus on the significance of engaging interactions. This aligns with existing literature highlighting the crucial role of interaction in fostering a sense of collaborative learning in online and blended environments [ 29 , 30 ].

Conversely, course management and performance in the courses elicit lower satisfaction scores, coupled with higher variability among responses. This suggests diverse opinions and areas for potential enhancement. The reasons behind this variation may be explained by the fact that students came from different nursing programs, such as bachelor’s and technical nursing programs, each with distinct experiences. These differences likely result in varying levels of satisfaction with course management and performance in blended learning environments. This aligns with findings from studies comparing student satisfaction across different programs, which emphasize how program structure impacts the blended learning experience [ 31 , 32 ].

Moreover, the literature acknowledges the challenges associated with effective course management and maintaining performance standards in online settings [ 33 , 34 ]. These studies point to the need for targeted improvements in these domains to enhance overall satisfaction. The moderate overall satisfaction level in the current study reflects a balanced sentiment among nursing students. This finding is consistent with research suggesting that well-implemented blended learning can provide a satisfactory educational experience [ 29 , 35 ].

Concerning nursing students’ perceptions of environmental facilitators to blended learning, the current study presents a substantial agreement among students concerning encouragements to enroll in blended learning courses highlights the positive impact of institutional support structures. This aligns with a body of studies emphasizing the important role of encouragement and institutional backing in fostering student engagement in online and blended courses [ 36 , 37 ]. The robust support for enrollment suggests that proactive measures to promote blended learning within academic institutions can significantly contribute to students’ favorable perceptions and satisfaction [ 36 , 37 ].

Moreover, the acknowledgment of the flexibility in time and events of blended learning courses, although with some variability in opinions, echoes findings in existing literature recognizing the diverse needs of students regarding time management in online and blended learning environments [ 38 , 39 ]. This highlights the importance of designing flexible course structures that accommodate varying schedules and preferences, catering to the individualized nature of student experiences [ 39 ]. While students express moderate agreement with concerns such as the potential of dropout in blended learning and the cost-benefit of blended learning courses, the overall low variability in responses suggests a generally consistent viewpoint among students in the current study. This aligns with studies investigating barriers to online education, emphasizing the need for institutions to address concerns related to dropout potential and cost-effectiveness to enhance the overall learning experience [ 40 , 41 ].

The multiple linear regression model in the current study clarifies the intricate web of factors influencing nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning. Particularly, the modest negative association between age and satisfaction scores suggests that as students’ age increases, satisfaction marginally decreases. This finding resonates with some existing literature highlighting potential challenges older students may face in adapting to technology-mediated learning [ 42 ]. Tailored support and interventions may be beneficial to enhance the satisfaction of older nursing students in blended learning environments [ 43 ].

On a gender-related note, the higher satisfaction expressed by female students aligns with a study suggesting that female students tend to engage more actively in online discussions and collaborative activities [ 44 ]. Understanding these gender dynamics could inform instructional strategies that cater to diverse learning preferences and participation levels [ 45 ]. Additionally, the significant negative impact of lower income on satisfaction highlights the socioeconomic factors influencing students’ experiences in blended learning. This is consistent with broader literature indicating that financial constraints can hinder access to resources and technology necessary for online education [ 46 , 47 ]. Mitigating these disparities through targeted support mechanisms could contribute to a more equitable educational experience [ 48 ].

In the current study, the positive association between employment and satisfaction may be attributed to the flexibility of time between work and study that is offered by blended learning and limited in face-to-face learning [ 49 ]. This finding aligns with studies emphasizing the potential benefits of balancing work and study in enhancing satisfaction in online learning [ 13 , 49 ]. Access to a suitable internet source emerges as an important determinant, positively influencing satisfaction. This aligns with a wealth of studies stressing the importance of digital infrastructure in online and blended learning environments [ 50 , 51 ].

The positive links between higher academic years, computer literacy, and increased satisfaction scores highlight the role of positive adaptation and technological proficiency in fostering contentment. This supports existing studies emphasizing the importance of digital literacy in online and blended learning [ 52 , 53 ]. However, it is important to note that the factors associated with blended learning satisfaction, such as computer literacy and access to technology, are only part of the equation. There may be additional unexplored variables, such as institutional infrastructure, technical support availability, and faculty preparedness, that contribute to student satisfaction. Addressing these factors in future research will be critical to fully understanding the drivers of satisfaction [ 13 , 30 ].

Future research directions

To address the variability in satisfaction scores, further studies should explore additional variables such as faculty development, technical support systems, and infrastructure investments. Comparative studies across different educational settings and longitudinal designs could provide a more nuanced understanding of how satisfaction evolves over time, and what specific interventions may improve satisfaction in different contexts.

Implications of findings

The findings of this study emphasize the importance of considering the sociodemographic and learning characteristics of nursing students, in addition to the environmental facilitators and barriers, in fostering satisfaction with blended learning. Institutions aiming to enhance the experience of nursing students in blended learning environments should invest in robust faculty training programs, expand digital infrastructure, and provide socioeconomic support to students in need. Implementing these measures could significantly improve the personalized and responsive learning environment essential for modern nursing education.

Strengths and limitations

Strengths of this study include its sample size of 1266 nursing students from diverse educational institutions ensures robustness and representativeness across different academic levels and cohorts. Rigorous statistical methods, including a power analysis and multivariate regression model, enhance the validity of the findings. The employment of established measurement tools, such as the Blended Learning Satisfaction Scale and the Environmental Facilitators and Barriers to Student Persistence in Online Courses scale, contributes to the study’s reliability.

This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. The use of self-reported data may introduce response bias, as participants might provide inaccurate or biased answers. To mitigate this, surveys were anonymized to encourage honest reporting; however, response bias remains a potential concern. Additionally, the study employed a convenience sampling method, focusing solely on nursing students from Alexandria University, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations of nursing students. The cross-sectional design of the study also prevents the establishment of causality between the determinants and satisfaction with blended learning, indicating a need for longitudinal studies to investigate the temporal relationships between these variables.

Factors such as age, gender, income, employment status, access to suitable internet sources, academic year, computer literacy, preference for blended learning, and encouragement to enroll significantly influence nursing students’ satisfaction levels with blended learning. Notably, perceptions of flexibility in time and events, as well as the perceived cost-benefit of blended courses, play crucial roles in shaping satisfaction. These findings emphasize the importance of addressing diverse student needs and enhancing support structures to optimize satisfaction and effectiveness in blended learning environments.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Acknowledgements

We thank all nursing students who participated in the study.

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Eman Arafa Hassan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Investigation, Writing- Original draft preparation, Supervision. Ahlam Mahmoud Mohamed: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Supervision.Fatma Abdou Eltaib: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing- Reviewing and Editing. Asmaa Mohammed Saad Khaled: Conceptualization, visualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

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Hassan, E.A., Mohamed, A.M., Eltaib, F.A. et al. Determinants of nursing students’ satisfaction with blended learning. BMC Nurs 23 , 766 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02393-y

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02393-y

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Review of green water systems for urban flood resilience: literature and codes.

1. Introduction

2. background.

• How are GWSs developed as a sustainable tool to mitigate urban flooding defined?
• Are GWSs a viable alternative to combat pluvial flooding in Peru? Are they the best tool available?
• What are the design parameters and characteristics of a GWS with applicability to Peru?
• Is it feasible to develop a “Design Code” proposal for SuDSs for an urban context in Peru?

3. Materials and Methods

4.1. literature review, 4.2. design codes of suds.

• United Kingdom: The SuDS Manual (C753) [ 27 ].
• Colombia: EAAB—Norma Técnica de criterios para diseño y construcción de sistemas urbanos de drenaje sostenible (NS-166) [ 28 ].
• El Salvador: Guía Técnica para el diseño de SuDS [ 162 ].
• Canada: Guide de Gestion des eaux pluviales [ 163 ].
• Malaysia: Urban Stormwater Management Manual [ 164 ].
• Spain: Guía Básica para el Diseño de Sistemas Urbanos de Drenaje Sostenible [ 165 ].

4.3. Proposed GWS Definition

4.4. international review of suds regulations, 4.5. application in peruvian context, 5. discussion.

• How are GWS developed as a sustainable tool to mitigate urban flooding defined?
• Are GWS a viable alternative to combat pluvial flooding in Peru? Are they the best tool available?
• What are the design parameters and characteristics of a GWS type with applicability to Peru?
• Is it feasible to develop a “Design Code” proposal for SuDSs in an urban context in Peru?

6. Conclusions

Author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Valencia-Félix, S.; Anco-Valdivia, J.; Espinoza Vigil, A.J.; Hidalgo Valdivia, A.V.; Sanchez-Carigga, C. Review of Green Water Systems for Urban Flood Resilience: Literature and Codes. Water 2024 , 16 , 2908. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202908

Valencia-Félix S, Anco-Valdivia J, Espinoza Vigil AJ, Hidalgo Valdivia AV, Sanchez-Carigga C. Review of Green Water Systems for Urban Flood Resilience: Literature and Codes. Water . 2024; 16(20):2908. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202908

Valencia-Félix, Sebastián, Johan Anco-Valdivia, Alain Jorge Espinoza Vigil, Alejandro Víctor Hidalgo Valdivia, and Carlos Sanchez-Carigga. 2024. "Review of Green Water Systems for Urban Flood Resilience: Literature and Codes" Water 16, no. 20: 2908. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202908

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Hypophysitis in COVID-19: a systematic review

Affiliations.

• 1 Institute of Endocrine and Metabolic Sciences, San Raffaele Vita-Salute University and IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132, Milan, Italy. [email protected].
• 2 Institute of Endocrine and Metabolic Sciences, San Raffaele Vita-Salute University and IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132, Milan, Italy.
• 3 Pituitary Unit, Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, IRCCS, Rome, Italy.
• 4 Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Sacred Heart Catholic University, Rome, Italy.
• PMID: 39404935
• DOI: 10.1007/s11102-024-01462-4

Purpose: This systematic review aims to collect and examine recent research findings regarding hypophysitis in COVID-19 patients.

Method: We conducted a comprehensive literature review in English on the topic "Hypophysitis in COVID-19," using the MEDLINE (PubMed) database in July 2024. The selected articles were systematically tabulated and we have assessed in this review patient demographics, symptom presentation, imaging results, diagnosis, clinical management, and outcomes.

Results: Seven reported cases of post-COVID-19 hypophysitis were identified, comprising 4 (57%) females and 3 (43%) males, with a median age of 37 years. The interval between COVID-19 infection symptoms and the onset of hypophysitis ranged from 2 to 3 weeks. Initial symptoms included frontal headache in 4 (57%) cases and polyuria and polydipsia in 3 (43%) cases. Anterior or posterior hypopituitarism was observed in 6 (85%) patients. Radiological findings varied: 2 (28.5%) cases showed panhypophysitis, 3 (43%) cases exhibited gland enlargement with homogeneous contrast enhancement on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 1 case involved the loss of the posterior pituitary bright spot, and 1 case involved pituitary apoplexy/enlargement of the gland and infundibulum. No pituitary biopsies were performed. Four (57%) patients received glucocorticoid (GC) treatment. Long-term follow-up was documented in only one case, a 16-year-old female followed for 2 years reporting complete clinical and radiological resolution.

Conclusion: Although rare, hypophysitis related to COVID-19 is documented in the literature exhibiting distinct characteristics such as a homogeneous gender prevalence, an average age of onset around 35 years, and primary symptoms of headache, polyuria, and polydipsia which are indicative of angiotensin-vasopressin deficiency. This is in contrast with primary autoimmune hypophysitis characterized by a female prevalence and typical symptoms with headache and visual impairment. Longer-term follow-up of these patients is needed to better understand the potential lasting impact on pituitary function and radiological improvement. Future research should also explore the presence of anti-pituitary antibodies and the other possible pathophysiological mechanisms potentially involved in these cases.

Keywords: Angiotensin-vasopressin deficiency; Autoimmune; COVID-19; Hypophysitis; Hypothalamus; Pituitary; SARS-CoV-2.

© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.

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• Capatina C, Poiana C, Fleseriu M (2023) Pituitary and SARS CoV-2: an unremitting conundrum. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 37:101752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2023.101752 - DOI - PubMed
• Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S et al (2020) SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell 181:271–280e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052 - DOI - PubMed - PMC
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• Clarke SA, Abbara A, Dhillo WS (2022) Impact of COVID-19 on the endocrine system: a mini-review. Endocrinology 163. https://doi.org/10.1210/endocr/bqab203

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