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Domestic violence research topics.

The list of domestic violence research paper topics below will show that domestic violence takes on many forms. Through recent scientific study, it is now known that domestic violence occurs within different types of households. The purpose of creating this list is for students to have available a comprehensive, state-of-the-research, easy-to-read compilation of a wide variety of domestic violence topics and provide research paper examples on those topics.

Domestic violence research paper topics can be divided into seven categories:

• Victims of domestic violence,
• Theoretical perspectives and correlates to domestic violence,
• Cross-cultural and religious perspectives,
• Understudied areas within domestic violence research,
• Domestic violence and the law,
• Child abuse and elder abuse, and
• Special topics in domestic violence.

100+ Domestic Violence Research Topics

Victims of domestic violence.

Initial research recognized wives as victims of domestic violence. Thereafter, it was acknowledged that unmarried women were also falling victim to violence at the hands of their boyfriends. Subsequently, the term ‘‘battered women’’ became synonymous with ‘‘battered wives.’’ Legitimizing female victimization served as the catalyst in introducing other types of intimate partner violence.

• Battered Husbands
• Battered Wives
• Battered Women: Held in Captivity
• Battered Women Who Kill: An Examination
• Cohabiting Violence
• Dating Violence
• Domestic Violence in Workplace
• Intimate Partner Homicide
• Intimate Partner Violence, Forms of
• Marital Rape
• Mutual Battering
• Spousal Prostitution

Read more about victims of domestic violence .

Part 2: Research Paper Topics on

Theoretical Perspectives and Correlates to Domestic Violence

There is no single causal factor related to domestic violence. Rather, scholars have concluded that there are numerous factors that contribute to domestic violence. Feminists found that women were beaten at the hands of their partners. Drawing on feminist theory, they helped explain the relationship between patriarchy and domestic violence. Researchers have examined other theoretical perspectives such as attachment theory, exchange theory, identity theory, the cycle of violence, social learning theory, and victim-blaming theory in explaining domestic violence. However, factors exist that may not fall into a single theoretical perspective. Correlates have shown that certain factors such as pregnancy, social class, level of education, animal abuse, and substance abuse may influence the likelihood for victimization.

• Animal Abuse: The Link to Family Violence
• Assessing Risk in Domestic Violence Cases
• Attachment Theory and Domestic Violence
• Battered Woman Syndrome
• Batterer Typology
• Bullying and the Family
• Coercive Control
• Control Balance Theory and Domestic Violence
• Cycle of Violence
• Depression and Domestic Violence
• Education as a Risk Factor for Domestic Violence
• Exchange Theory
• Feminist Theory
• Identity Theory and Domestic Violence
• Intergenerational Transfer of Intimate Partner Violence
• Popular Culture and Domestic Violence
• Post-Incest Syndrome
• Pregnancy-Related Violence
• Social Class and Domestic Violence
• Social Learning Theory and Family Violence
• Stockholm Syndrome in Battered Women
• Substance Use/Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence
• The Impact of Homelessness on Family Violence
• Victim-Blaming Theory

Read more about domestic violence theories .

Part 3: Research Paper Topics on

Cross-Cultural and Religious Perspectives on Domestic Violence

It was essential to acknowledge that domestic violence crosses cultural boundaries and religious affiliations. There is no one particular society or religious group exempt from victimization. A variety of developed and developing countries were examined in understanding the prevalence of domestic violence within their societies as well as their coping strategies in handling these volatile issues. It is often misunderstood that one religious group is more tolerant of family violence than another. As Christianity, Islam, and Judaism represent the three major religions of the world, their ideologies were explored in relation to the acceptance and prevalence of domestic violence.

• Africa: Domestic Violence and the Law
• Africa: The Criminal Justice System and the Problem of Domestic Violence in West Africa
• Asian Americans and Domestic Violence: Cultural Dimensions
• Child Abuse: A Global Perspective
• Christianity and Domestic Violence
• Cross-Cultural Examination of Domestic Violence in China and Pakistan
• Cross-Cultural Examination of Domestic Violence in Latin America
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Domestic Violence
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives on How to Deal with Batterers
• Dating Violence among African American Couples
• Domestic Violence among Native Americans
• Domestic Violence in African American Community
• Domestic Violence in Greece
• Domestic Violence in Rural Communities
• Domestic Violence in South Africa
• Domestic Violence in Spain
• Domestic Violence in Trinidad and Tobago
• Domestic Violence within the Jewish Community
• Human Rights, Refugee Laws, and Asylum Protection for People Fleeing Domestic Violence
• Introduction to Minorities and Families in America
• Medical Neglect Related to Religion and Culture
• Multicultural Programs for Domestic Batterers
• Qur’anic Perspectives on Wife Abuse
• Religious Attitudes toward Corporal Punishment
• Rule of Thumb
• Same-Sex Domestic Violence: Comparing Venezuela and the United States
• Worldwide Sociolegal Precedents Supporting Domestic Violence from Ancient to Modern Times

Part 4: Research Paper Topics on

Understudied Areas within Domestic Violence Research

Domestic violence has typically examined traditional relationships, such as husband–wife, boyfriend–girlfriend, and parent–child. Consequently, scholars have historically ignored non-traditional relationships. In fact, certain entries have limited cross-references based on the fact that there were limited, if any, scholarly publications on that topic. Only since the 1990s have scholars admitted that violence exists among lesbians and gay males. There are other ignored populations that are addressed within this encyclopedia including violence within military and police families, violence within pseudo-family environments, and violence against women and children with disabilities.

• Caregiver Violence against People with Disabilities
• Community Response to Gay and Lesbian Domestic Violence
• Compassionate Homicide and Spousal Violence
• Domestic Violence against Women with Disabilities
• Domestic Violence by Law Enforcement Officers
• Domestic Violence within Military Families
• Factors Influencing Reporting Behavior by Male Domestic Violence Victims
• Gay and Bisexual Male Domestic Violence
• Gender Socialization and Gay Male Domestic Violence
• Inmate Mothers: Treatment and Policy Implications
• Intimate Partner Violence and Mental Retardation
• Intimate Partner Violence in Queer, Transgender, and Bisexual Communities
• Lesbian Battering
• Male Victims of Domestic Violence and Reasons They Stay with Their Abusers
• Medicalization of Domestic Violence
• Police Attitudes and Behaviors toward Gay Domestic Violence
• Pseudo-Family Abuse
• Sexual Aggression Perpetrated by Females
• Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: The Need for Education in Servicing Victims of Trauma

Part 5: Research Paper Topics on

Domestic Violence and the Law

The Violence against Women Act (VAWA) of 1994 helped pave domestic violence concerns into legislative matters. Historically, family violence was handled through informal measures often resulting in mishandling of cases. Through VAWA, victims were given the opportunity to have their cases legally remedied. This legitimized the separation of specialized domestic and family violence courts from criminal courts. The law has recognized that victims of domestic violence deserve recognition and resolution. Law enforcement agencies may be held civilly accountable for their actions in domestic violence incidents. Mandatory arrest policies have been initiated helping reduce discretionary power of police officers. Courts have also begun to focus on the offenders of domestic violence. Currently, there are batterer intervention programs and mediation programs available for offenders within certain jurisdictions. Its goals are to reduce the rate of recidivism among batterers.

• Battered Woman Syndrome as a Legal Defense in Cases of Spousal Homicide
• Batterer Intervention Programs
• Clemency for Battered Women
• Divorce, Child Custody, and Domestic Violence
• Domestic Violence Courts
• Electronic Monitoring of Abusers
• Expert Testimony in Domestic Violence Cases
• Judicial Perspectives on Domestic Violence
• Lautenberg Law
• Legal Issues for Battered Women
• Mandatory Arrest Policies
• Mediation in Domestic Violence
• Police Civil Liability in Domestic Violence Incidents
• Police Decision-Making Factors in Domestic Violence Cases
• Police Response to Domestic Violence Incidents
• Prosecution of Child Abuse and Neglect
• Protective and Restraining Orders
• Shelter Movement
• Training Practices for Law Enforcement in Domestic Violence Cases
• Violence against Women Act

Read more about Domestic Violence Law .

Part 6: Research Paper Topics on

Child Abuse and Elder Abuse

Scholars began to address child abuse over the last third of the twentieth century. It is now recognized that child abuse falls within a wide spectrum. In the past, it was based on visible bruises and scars. Today, researchers have acknowledged that psychological abuse, where there are no visible injuries, is just as damaging as its counterpart. One of the greatest controversies in child abuse literature is that of Munchausen by Proxy. Some scholars have recognized that it is a syndrome while others would deny a syndrome exists. Regardless of the term ‘‘syndrome,’’ Munchausen by Proxy does exist and needs to be further examined. Another form of violence that needs to be further examined is elder abuse. Elder abuse literature typically focused on abuse perpetrated by children and caregivers. With increased life expectancies, it is now understood that there is greater probability for violence among elderly intimate couples. Shelters and hospitals need to better understand this unique population in order to better serve its victims.

• Assessing the Risks of Elder Abuse
• Child Abuse and Juvenile Delinquency
• Child Abuse and Neglect in the United States: An Overview
• Child Maltreatment, Interviewing Suspected Victims of
• Child Neglect
• Child Sexual Abuse
• Children Witnessing Parental Violence
• Consequences of Elder Abuse
• Elder Abuse and Neglect: Training Issues for Professionals
• Elder Abuse by Intimate Partners
• Elder Abuse Perpetrated by Adult Children
• Filicide and Children with Disabilities
• Mothers Who Kill
• Munchausen by Proxy Syndrome
• Parental Abduction
• Postpartum Depression, Psychosis, and Infanticide
• Ritual Abuse–Torture in Families
• Shaken Baby Syndrome
• Sibling Abuse

Part 7: Research Paper Topics on

Special Topics  in Domestic Violence

Within this list, there are topics that may not fit clearly into one of the aforementioned categories. Therefore, they are be listed in a separate special topics designation. Analyzing Incidents of Domestic Violence: The National Incident-Based Reporting System

• Community Response to Domestic Violence
• Conflict Tactics Scales
• Dissociation in Domestic Violence, The Role of
• Domestic Homicide in Urban Centers: New York City
• Fatality Reviews in Cases of Adult Domestic Homicide and Suicide
• Female Suicide and Domestic Violence
• Healthcare Professionals’ Roles in Identifying and Responding to Domestic Violence
• Measuring Domestic Violence
• Neurological and Physiological Impact of Abuse
• Social, Economic, and Psychological Costs of Violence
• Stages of Leaving Abusive Relationships
• The Physical and Psychological Impact of Spousal Abuse

Domestic violence remains a relatively new field of study among social scientists but it is already a popular research paper subject within college and university students. Only within the past 4 decades have scholars recognized domestic violence as a social problem. Initially, domestic violence research focused on child abuse. Thereafter, researchers focused on wife abuse and used this concept interchangeably with domestic violence. Within the past 20 years, researchers have acknowledged that other forms of violent relationships exist, including dating violence, battered males, and gay domestic violence. Moreover, academicians have recognized a subcategory within the field of criminal justice: victimology (the scientific study of victims). Throughout the United States, colleges and universities have been creating victimology courses, and even more specifically, family violence and interpersonal violence courses.

The media have informed us that domestic violence is so commonplace that the public has unfortunately grown accustomed to reading and hearing about husbands killing their wives, mothers killing their children, or parents neglecting their children. While it is understood that these offenses take place, the explanations as to what factors contributed to them remain unclear. In order to prevent future violence, it is imperative to understand its roots. There is no one causal explanation for domestic violence; however, there are numerous factors which may help explain these unjustified acts of violence. Highly publicized cases such as the O.J. Simpson and Scott Peterson trials have shown the world that alleged murderers may not resemble the deranged sociopath depicted in horror films. Rather, they can be handsome, charming, and well-liked by society. In addition, court-centered programming on television continuously publicizes cases of violence within the home informing the public that we are potentially at risk by our caregivers and other loved ones. There is the case of the au pair Elizabeth Woodward convicted of shaking and killing Matthew Eappen, the child entrusted to her care. Some of the most highly publicized cases have also focused on mothers who kill. America was stunned as it heard the cases of Susan Smith and Andrea Yates. Both women were convicted of brutally killing their own children. Many asked how loving mothers could turn into cold-blooded killers.

Browse other criminal justice research topics .

SAFETY ALERT:  If you are in danger, please use a safer computer and consider calling 911. The National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-7233 / TTY 1-800-787-3224 or the StrongHearts Native Helpline at 1−844-762-8483 (call or text) are available to assist you.

Please review these safety tips .

Research & Evidence

NRCDV works to strengthen researcher/practitioner collaborations that advance the field’s knowledge of, access to, and input in research that informs policy and practice at all levels. We also identify and develop guidance and tools to help domestic violence programs and coalitions better evaluate their work, including by using participatory action research approaches that directly tap the diverse expertise of a community to frame and guide evaluation efforts.

Safety & Privacy in a Digital World

Immigrant Survivors of Domestic Violence  

Teen Dating Violence

Housing and Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence in LGBTQ Communities

Trans and Non-Binary Survivors

The Difference Between Surviving & Not Surviving

Earned Income Tax Credit & Other Tax Credits

For an extensive list of research & evidence materials check out the research & statistics section on VAWnet

The Domestic Violence Evidence Project (DVEP) is a multi-faceted, multi-year and highly collaborative effort designed to assist state coalitions, local domestic violence programs, researchers, and other allied individuals and organizations better respond to the growing emphasis on identifying and integrating evidence-based practice into their work. DVEP brings together research, evaluation, practice and theory to inform critical thinking and enhance the field's knowledge to better serve survivors and their families.

The Community Based Participatory Research Toolkit  (CBPR) is for researchers and practitioners across disciplines and social locations who are working in academic, policy, community, or practice-based settings. In particular, the toolkit provides support to emerging researchers as they consider whether and how to take a CBPR approach and what it might mean in the context of their professional roles and settings. Domestic violence advocates will also find useful information on the CBPR approach and how it can help answer important questions about your work.

For over two decades, the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence has operated  VAWnet , an online library focused on violence against women and other forms of gender-based violence.  VAWnet.org  has long been identified as an unparalleled, comprehensive, go-to source of information and resources for anti-violence advocates, human service professionals, educators, faith leaders, and others interested in ending domestic and sexual violence.

Safe Housing Partnerships , the website of the Domestic Violence and Housing Technical Assistance Consortium , includes the latest research and evidence on the intersection of domestic and sexual violence, housing, and homelessness. You can also find new research exploring different aspects of efforts to expand housing options for domestic and sexual violence survivors, including the use of flexible funding approaches, DV Housing First and rapid rehousing, DV Transitional Housing, and mobile advocacy.

Domestic Violence Facts and Statistics    *  Domestic Violence Video Presentations   *   Online CEU Courses

From the Editorial Board of the Peer-Reviewed Journal, Partner Abuse www.springerpub.com/pa and the Advisory Board of the Association of Domestic Violence Intervention Programs www.battererintervention.org *  www.domesticviolenceintervention.net

Resources for researchers, policy-makers, intervention providers, victim advocates, law enforcement, judges, attorneys, family court mediators, educators, and anyone interested in family violence

PASK FINDINGS

61-Page Author Overview

Domestic Violence Facts and Statistics at-a-Glance

PASK Researchers

PASK Video Summary by John Hamel, LCSW

• Introduction
• Implications for Policy and Treatment
• Domestic Violence Politics

17 Full PASK Manuscripts and tables of Summarized Studies

INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH

THE PARTNER ABUSE STATE OF KNOWLEDGE PROJECT

The world's largest domestic violence research data base, 2,657 pages, with summaries of 1700 peer-reviewed studies.

Courtesy of the scholarly journal, Partner Abuse www.springerpub.com/pa and the Association of Domestic Violence Intervention Providers www.domesticviolenceintervention.net

Over the years, research on partner abuse has become unnecessarily fragmented and politicized. The purpose of The Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project (PASK) is to bring together in a rigorously evidence-based, transparent and methodical manner existing knowledge about partner abuse with reliable, up-to-date research that can easily be accessed both by researchers and the general public.

Family violence scholars from the United States, Canada and the U.K. were invited to conduct an extensive and thorough review of the empirical literature, in 17 broad topic areas. They were asked to conduct a formal search for published, peer-reviewed studies through standard, widely-used search programs, and then catalogue and summarize all known research studies relevant to each major topic and its sub-topics. In the interest of thoroughness and transparency, the researchers agreed to summarize all quantitative studies published in peer-reviewed journals after 1990, as well as any major studies published prior to that time, and to clearly specify exclusion criteria. Included studies are organized in extended tables, each table containing summaries of studies relevant to its particular sub-topic.

In this unprecedented undertaking, a total of 42 scholars and 70 research assistants at 20 universities and research institutions spent two years or more researching their topics and writing the results. Approximately 12,000 studies were considered and more than 1,700 were summarized and organized into tables. The 17 manuscripts, which provide a review of findings on each of the topics, for a total of 2,657 pages, appear in 5 consecutive special issues of the peer-reviewed journal Partner Abuse . All conclusions, including the extent to which the research evidence supports or undermines current theories, are based strictly on the data collected.

Contact: [email protected]

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE TRAININGS

Online CEU Courses - Click Here for More Information

Also see VIDEOS and ADDITIONAL RESEARCH sections below.

Other domestic violence trainings are available at: www.domesticviolenceintervention.net , courtesy of the Association of Domestic Violence Intervention Providers (ADVIP)

Click here for video presentations from the 6-hour ADVIP 2020 International Conference on evidence-based treatment.

NISVS: The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey

Click here for all reports

CLASSIC VIDEO PRESENTATIONS Murray Straus, Ph.D. *  Erin Pizzey  *  Don Dutton, Ph.D. Click Here

Video: the uncomfortable facts on ipv, tonia nicholls, ph.d., video: batterer intervention groups:  moving forward with evidence-based practice, john hamel, ph.d., additional research.

From Other Renowned Scholars and Clinicians.  Click on any name below for research, trainings and expert witness/consultation services

PREVALENCE RATES

Arthur Cantos, Ph.D. University of Texas

Denise Hines, Ph.D. Clark University

Zeev Winstok, Ph.D. University of Haifa (Israel)

CONTEXT OF ABUSE

Don Dutton, Ph.D University of British Columbia (Canada)

K. Daniel O'Leary State University of New York at Stony Brook

Jennifer Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Ph.D. University of South Alabama

ABUSE WORLDWIDE ETHNIC/LGBT GROUPS

Fred Buttell, Ph.D. Tulane University

Clare Cannon, Ph.D. University of California, Davis

Vallerie Coleman, Ph.D. Private Practice, Santa Monica, CA

Chiara Sabina, Ph.D. Penn State Harrisburg

Esteban Eugenio Santovena, Ph.D. Universidad Autonoma de Ciudad Juarez, Mexico

Christauria Welland, Ph.D. Private Practice, San Diego, CA

RISK FACTORS

Louise Dixon, Ph.D. University of Birmingham (U.K.)

Sandra Stith, Ph.D. Kansas State University

Gregory Stuart, Ph.D. University of Tennessee Knoxville

IMPACT ON VICTIMS AND FAMILIES

Deborah Capaldi, Ph.D. Oregon Social Learning Center

Patrick Davies, Ph.D. University of Rochester

Miriam Ehrensaft, Ph.D. Columbia University Medical Ctr.

Amy Slep, Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook

VICTIM ISSUES

Carol Crabsen, MSW Valley Oasis, Lancaster, CA

Emily Douglas, Ph.D. Bridgewater State University

Leila Dutton, Ph.D. University of New Haven

Margaux Helm WEAVE, Sacramento, CA

Linda Mills, Ph.D. New York University

Brenda Russell, Ph.D. Penn State Berks

CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESPONSES

Ken Corvo, Ph.D. Syracuse University

Jeffrey Fagan, Ph.D. Columbia University

Brenda Russell, Ph.D, Penn State Berks

Stan Shernock, Ph.D. Norwich University

PREVENTION AND TREATMENT

Julia Babcock, Ph.D. University of Houston

Fred Buttell, Ph.D.Tulane University

Michelle Carney, Ph.D. University of Georgia

Christopher Eckhardt, Ph.D. Purdue Univerity

Kimberly Flemke, Ph.D. Drexel University

Nicola Graham-Kevan, Ph.D. Univ. Central Lancashire (U.K.)

Peter Lehmann, Ph.D. University of Texas at Arlingon

Penny Leisring, Ph.D. Quinnipiac University

Christopher Murphy, Ph.D. University of Maryland

Ronald Potter-Efron, Ph.D. Private Practice, Eleva, WI

Daniel Sonkin, Ph.D. Private Practice, Sausalito, CA.

Lynn Stewart, Ph.D. Correctional Service, Canada

Casey Taft, Ph.D Boston University School of Medicine

Jeff Temple, Ph.D. University of Texas Medical Branch

Power Through Partnerships

A cbpr toolkit for domestic violence researchers.

This toolkit is for researchers across disciplines and social locations who are working in academic, policy, community, or practice-based settings. In particular, the toolkit provides support to emerging researchers as they consider whether and how to take a CBPR approach and what it might mean in the context of their professional roles and settings. Domestic violence advocates will also find useful information on the CBPR approach and how it can help answer important questions about your work.

Suggested Citation: Goodman, L.A., Thomas, K.A., Serrata, J.V., Lippy, C., Nnawulezi, N., Ghanbarpour, S., Macy, R., Sullivan, C. & Bair-Merritt, M.A. (2017). Power through partnerships: A CBPR toolkit for domestic violence researchers. National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, Harrisburg, PA. Retrieved from cbprtoolkit.org

Overview of CBPR and its importance to the domestic violence field

Foundational information about the definition and history of CBPR, and more importantly, CBPR within domestic violence work.

Preparation and Planning

How to engage in the self-reflection necessary for conducting CBPR in the domestic violence arena while learning about the community with which you’d like to collaborate.

CBPR values and practices in the domestic violence context

A description of the core values of CBPR and a set of concrete questions and ideas to help you translate these values into action.

Ready to initiate CBPR in your community? Use These Extra Tools To Guide Action.

Download these tools with the full toolkit or each individually to save valuable time and resources.

What's the purpose of your study? What will happen during your study? Will my information be kept private? Download this and let others know.

Build your efforts on our solid foundation of CBPR principles based on 30 years of our collective lived experiences. Download and get started.

Two case studies that demonstrate successful collaboration within the CBPR field. Download and read for additional inspiration.

A short summary of a study, potentially useful for practitioners who do not have time to read an article in a journal. Download and see how.

Who Are We?

We are a group of CBPR researchers who bring decades of experience doing CBPR from the perspective of different disciplines, professional settings, communities, roles, and identities. Some of us are based in universities and others are based in national organizations. All of us have worked directly in and/or with programs that serve survivors.

A Special Thanks...

We are grateful for the enormous contribution from doctoral students at Boston College and Simmons School of Social Work, our video editor, and of course WT Grant Foundation - who provided the initial investment in this project. We also thank the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, who decided that this toolkit should be more than a local endeavor and supported our efforts to expand it.

• Section 1: Overview of CBPR and its Importance to the Domestic Violence Field
• Section 2: Preparation and Planning
• Section 3: CBPR Values and Practices in the Domestic Violence Context

Domestic Violence

About domestic violence, narrow the topic.

• Articles & Videos
• MLA Citation This link opens in a new window
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Domestic violence describes abuse perpetrated by one partner against another in the context of an interpersonal relationship. Domestic violence can be committed by current or former partners. The alternate term intimate partner violence has gained favor in the twenty-first century, as it expands the definition to include relationships between couples who are not married or cohabiting. Family violence further extends the scope of the issue to consider cases in which other immediate family members are victimized by violent or abusive behavior.

The prevalence of domestic and intimate partner violence is difficult to determine, as these forms of violence often remain unreported. For example, according to the US Department of Justice's Office for Victims of Crime, reports of intimate partner violence...  ( Opposing Viewpoints )

• Is domestic violence a sign that  America’s family values are in decline?
• Do female batterers differ from male batterers?
• How do drug abuse and alcoholism affect family violence?
• Are there signs that violence will escalate to murder?
• How have the O.J. Simpson, Chris Brown, or Ray Rice cases affected domestic violence awareness?
• Is the "conditioned helplessness" of abused women a factor?
• I s violence genetic or environmental?
• Does poverty affect spousal abuse?
• Why do some men still regard their wives as property?
• What affect does domestic violence have on the divorce rate?
• Is counseling effective for couples in violent relationships?
• Can abusers be rehabilitated?
• Has the economic downturn increased the number of battered spouses?
• Why do some women stay in an abusive relationship?
• Discuss particular issues in same-sex intimate partner violence.
• What are the signs of a battered person/partner?
• Why do women under-report being abused?
• Why are men less likely than women to report being abused?
• Is there adequate support for victims of same-sex partner violence?
• How do gender roles, stereotypes, and hetero-sexism shape domestic violence?
• What are the behavioral patterns of spousal abuse?
• What is the psychological make-up of an abuser?
• How does spousal abuse affect the family unit?
• Does spousal abuse impact the larger community, if so how?
• Is spousal abuse a crime?
• What are the statistics for spousal abuse in the U.S.?
• What types of treatment are available for abusive husbands and wives?
• How effective are these treatments in preventing future abuse?
• Do children who witness spousal abuse become abusers or abused as adults?
• What resources are available for abused spouses to get help?
• Next: Library Resources >>
• Last Updated: Feb 6, 2024 12:40 PM
• URL: https://libguides.broward.edu/domestic_violence

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Expert Commentary

Domestic violence and abusive relationships: Research review

Research review of data and studies relating to intimate partner violence and abusive relationships.

Republish this article

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License .

by John Wihbey, The Journalist's Resource August 17, 2015

This <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org/criminal-justice/domestic-violence-abusive-relationships-research-review/">article</a> first appeared on <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org">The Journalist's Resource</a> and is republished here under a Creative Commons license.<img src="https://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/cropped-jr-favicon-150x150.png" style="width:1em;height:1em;margin-left:10px;">

The controversy over NFL star Ray Rice and the instance of domestic violence he perpetrated, which was caught on video camera, stirred wide discussion about sports culture, domestic violence and even the psychology of victims and their complex responses to abuse . In 2015, domestic violence drew a national spotlight again when the South Carolina newspaper, the Post and Courier , won a Pulitzer Prize for its investigation of women who were abused by men and had been dying at a rate of one every 12 days.

The research on domestic violence, referred to more precisely in academic literature as “intimate partner violence” (IPV), has grown substantially over the past few decades. Although knowledge of the problem and its scope have deepened, the issue remains a major health and social problem afflicting women. In November 2014 the World Health Organization estimated that 35% of all women have experienced either intimate partner violence or sexual violence by a non-partner during their lifetimes. This figure is supported by the findings of a 2013 peer-reviewed metastudy — the most rigorous form of research analysis — published in the leading academic journal Science . That metastudy found that “in 2010, 30.0% [95% confidence interval (CI) 27.8 to 32.2%] of women aged 15 and over have experienced, during their lifetime, physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence.” The prevalence found among high-income regions in North America was 21.3%. Of course, under-reporting remains a substantial problem in this research area.

In 2010, the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, conducted by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, found that “more than 1 in 3 women (35.6%) … in the United States have experienced rape, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner in their lifetime.” That survey was subsequently updated in September 2014. The findings, based on telephone surveys with more than 12,000 people in 2011, include:

The lifetime prevalence of physical violence by an intimate partner was an estimated 31.5% among women and in the 12 months before taking the survey, an estimated 4.0% of women experienced some form of physical violence by an intimate partner. An estimated 22.3% of women experienced at least one act of severe physical violence by an intimate partner during their lifetimes. With respect to individual severe physical violence behaviors, being slammed against something was experienced by an estimated 15.4% of women, and being hit with a fist or something hard was experienced by 13.2% of women. In the 12 months before taking the survey, an estimated 2.3% of women experienced at least one form of severe physical violence by an intimate partner.

Still, the overall rates of IPV in the United States have been generally falling over the past two decades, and in 2013 the federal government reauthorized an enhanced Violence Against Women Act , adding further legal protections and broadening the groups covered to include LGBT persons and Native American women. (For research on the relatively higher violence rates among gay men, see the 2012 study “Intimate Partner Violence and Social Pressure among Gay Men in Six Countries.” )

A 2013 study published in the Journal of Marriage and Family , “Women’s Education, Marital Violence, and Divorce: A Social Exchange Perspective,” analyzes a nationally representative sample of more than 900 young U.S. women to look at factors that make females more likely to leave abusive relationships. The researchers, Derek A. Kreager, Richard B. Felson, Cody Warner and Marin R. Wenger, are all at Pennsylvania State University. They note that traditional “social exchange theory” would suggest that as women have more resources, they become less dependent on men and have more opportunities outside relationships, and therefore have more ability to divorce. The study sets out to “determine whether the relationship between a woman’s education and divorce is different in violent marriages.” The researchers also hypothesize that women who have higher levels of education are less likely to get divorced in general — prior academic work they cite supports this — but they aim to see how the introduction of intimate partner violence changes this dynamic.

The study’s findings include:

• The data provide “support for our primary hypotheses that women’s education typically protects against divorce but that this association weakens in abusive marriages. In addition, we found a similar pattern for wives’ proportional income, net of education. Together, these patterns suggest that educational and financial resources benefit women by increasing marital stability in nonabusive marriages and promoting divorce in abusive marriages.”
• Further, the “greater tendency for educated women to leave abusive marriages was substantial. For example, in highly violent marriages, women with a college degree had over a 10% greater probability of divorce in the observed time period than women without a college degree.”
• The study also finds that “women with economic resources were likely to leave unhappy marriages, regardless of whether they involve abuse. Similarly, degree-earning women were more likely than less educated women to leave violent marriages, regardless of their feelings of dissatisfaction.”

The researchers note that, across the U.S. population, more women are attaining college degrees, and given the study’s findings, this suggests “increases in women’s education should reduce rates of domestic violence. In a population with many educated women, violent marriages are likely to break up.” They caution that it is also possible “that our observed patterns reflect husbands’ perceptions and decisions. Perhaps abusive men feel threatened by successful wives, which then increases divorce risk. Nonabusive men may not feel threatened and thus stay with successful women.” On this point, more research is required.

Related research: A 2015 study titled “When War Comes Home: The Effect of Combat Service on Domestic Violence” suggests that multiple deployments and longer deployment lengths may increase the chance of family violence. A June 2014 study published in the  Journal of Interpersonal Violence , “Intimate Partner Violence Before and During Pregnancy: Related Demographic and Psychosocial Factors and Postpartum Depressive Symptoms Among Mexican American Women,”  provides a snapshot of domestic violence in a community sample of low-income Hispanic women. A March 2013 report from the U.S. Department of Justice’s Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Female Victims of Sexual Violence, 1994-2010,” provides a broad picture of such crimes across American society, examining the demographics of both victims and offenders. Regarding the issue of IPV prevention, a 2003 metastudy published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) , “Interventions for Violence Against Women: Scientific Review,” found that “information about evidence-based approaches in the primary care setting for preventing IPV is seriously lacking…. Specifically, the effectiveness of routine primary care screening remains unclear, since screening studies have not evaluated outcomes beyond the ability of the screening test to identify abused women. Similarly, specific treatment interventions for women exposed to violence, including women’s shelters, have not been adequately evaluated.” Subsequent research continues to find problems with current techniques for screening and detection.

Tags: gender, women and work, crime, sex crimes

About The Author

John Wihbey

• Open access
• Published: 20 June 2023

A qualitative quantitative mixed methods study of domestic violence against women

• Mina Shayestefar 1 ,
• Mohadese Saffari 1 ,
• Razieh Gholamhosseinzadeh 2 ,
• Monir Nobahar 3 , 4 ,
• Majid Mirmohammadkhani 4 ,
• Seyed Hossein Shahcheragh 5 &
• Zahra Khosravi 6  

BMC Women's Health volume  23 , Article number:  322 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Violence against women is one of the most widespread, persistent and detrimental violations of human rights in today’s world, which has not been reported in most cases due to impunity, silence, stigma and shame, even in the age of social communication. Domestic violence against women harms individuals, families, and society. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence and experiences of domestic violence against women in Semnan.

This study was conducted as mixed research (cross-sectional descriptive and phenomenological qualitative methods) to investigate domestic violence against women, and some related factors (quantitative) and experiences of such violence (qualitative) simultaneously in Semnan. In quantitative study, cluster sampling was conducted based on the areas covered by health centers from married women living in Semnan since March 2021 to March 2022 using Domestic Violence Questionnaire. Then, the obtained data were analyzed by descriptive and inferential statistics. In qualitative study by phenomenological approach and purposive sampling until data saturation, 9 women were selected who had referred to the counseling units of Semnan health centers due to domestic violence, since March 2021 to March 2022 and in-depth and semi-structured interviews were conducted. The conducted interviews were analyzed using Colaizzi’s 7-step method.

In qualitative study, seven themes were found including “Facilitators”, “Role failure”, “Repressors”, “Efforts to preserve the family”, “Inappropriate solving of family conflicts”, “Consequences”, and “Inefficient supportive systems”. In quantitative study, the variables of age, age difference and number of years of marriage had a positive and significant relationship, and the variable of the number of children had a negative and significant relationship with the total score and all fields of the questionnaire (p < 0.05). Also, increasing the level of female education and income both independently showed a significant relationship with increasing the score of violence.

Conclusions

Some of the variables of violence against women are known and the need for prevention and plans to take action before their occurrence is well felt. Also, supportive mechanisms with objective and taboo-breaking results should be implemented to minimize harm to women, and their children and families seriously.

Peer Review reports

Violence against women by husbands (physical, sexual and psychological violence) is one of the basic problems of public health and violation of women’s human rights. It is estimated that 35% of women and almost one out of every three women aged 15–49 experience physical or sexual violence by their spouse or non-spouse sexual violence in their lifetime [ 1 ]. This is a nationwide public health issue, and nearly every healthcare worker will encounter a patient who has suffered from some type of domestic or family violence. Unfortunately, different forms of family violence are often interconnected. The “cycle of abuse” frequently persists from children who witness it to their adult relationships, and ultimately to the care of the elderly [ 2 ]. This violence includes a range of physical, sexual and psychological actions, control, threats, aggression, abuse, and rape [ 3 ].

Violence against women is one of the most widespread, persistent, and detrimental violations of human rights in today’s world, which has not been reported in most cases due to impunity, silence, stigma and shame, even in the age of social communication [ 3 ]. In the United States of America, more than one in three women (35.6%) experience rape, physical violence, and intimate partner violence (IPV) during their lifetime. Compared to men, women are nearly twice as likely (13.8% vs. 24.3%) to experience severe physical violence such as choking, burns, and threats with knives or guns [ 4 ]. The higher prevalence of violence against women can be due to the situational deprivation of women in patriarchal societies [ 5 ]. The prevalence of domestic violence in Iran reported 22.9%. The maximum of prevalence estimated in Tehran and Zahedan, respectively [ 6 ]. Currently, Iran has high levels of violence against women, and the provinces with the highest rates of unemployment and poverty also have the highest levels of violence against women [ 7 ].

Domestic violence against women harms individuals, families, and society [ 8 ]. Violence against women leads to physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering, including threats, coercion and arbitrary deprivation of their freedom in public and private life. Also, such violence is associated with harmful effects on women’s sexual reproductive health, including sexually transmitted infection such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), abortion, unsafe childbirth, and risky sexual behaviors [ 9 ]. There are high levels of psychological, sexual and physical domestic abuse among pregnant women [ 10 ]. Also, women with postpartum depression are significantly more likely to experience domestic violence during pregnancy [ 11 ].

Prompt attention to women’s health and rights at all levels is necessary, which reduces this problem and its risk factors [ 12 ]. Because women prefer to remain silent about domestic violence and there is a need to introduce immediate prevention programs to end domestic violence [ 13 ]. violence against women, which is an important public health problem, and concerns about human rights require careful study and the application of appropriate policies [ 14 ]. Also, the efforts to change the circumstances in which women face domestic violence remain significantly insufficient [ 15 ]. Given that few clear studies on violence against women and at the same time interviews with these people regarding their life experiences are available, the authors attempted to planning this research aims to investigate the prevalence and experiences of domestic violence against women in Semnan with the research question of “What is the prevalence of domestic violence against women in Semnan, and what are their experiences of such violence?”, so that their results can be used in part of the future planning in the health system of the society.

This study is a combination of cross-sectional and phenomenology studies in order to investigate the amount of domestic violence against women and some related factors (quantitative) and their experience of this violence (qualitative) simultaneously in the Semnan city. This study has been approved by the ethics committee of Semnan University of Medical Sciences with ethic code of IR.SEMUMS.REC.1397.182. The researcher introduced herself to the research participants, explained the purpose of the study, and then obtained informed written consent. It was assured to the research units that the collected information will be anonymous and kept confidential. The participants were informed that participation in the study was entirely voluntary, so they can withdraw from the study at any time with confidence. The participants were notified that more than one interview session may be necessary. To increase the trustworthiness of the study, Guba and Lincoln’s criteria for rigor, including credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability [ 16 ], were applied throughout the research process. The COREQ checklist was used to assess the present study quality. The researchers used observational notes for reflexivity and it preserved in all phases of this qualitative research process.

Qualitative method

Based on the phenomenological approach and with the purposeful sampling method, nine women who had referred to the counseling units of healthcare centers in Semnan city due to domestic violence in February 2021 to March 2022 were participated in the present study. The inclusion criteria for the study included marriage, a history of visiting a health center consultant due to domestic violence, and consent to participate in the study and unwillingness to participate in the study was the exclusion criteria. Each participant invited to the study by a telephone conversation about study aims and researcher information. The interviews place selected through agreement of the participant and the researcher and a place with the least environmental disturbance. Before starting each interview, the informed consent and all of the ethical considerations, including the purpose of the research, voluntary participation, confidentiality of the information were completely explained and they were asked to sign the written consent form. The participants were interviewed by depth, semi-structured and face-to-face interviews based on the main research question. Interviews were conducted by a female health services researcher with a background in nursing (M.Sh.). Data collection was continued until the data saturation and no new data appeared. Only the participants and the researcher were present during the interviews. All interviews were recorded by a MP3 Player by permission of the participants before starting. Interviews were not repeated. No additional field notes were taken during or after the interview.

The age range of the participants was from 38 to 55 years and their average age was 40 years. The sociodemographic characteristics of the participants are summarized in table below (Table  1 ).

Five interviews in the courtyards of healthcare centers, 2 interviews in the park, and 2 interviews at the participants’ homes were conducted. The duration of the interviews varied from 45 min to one hour. The main research question was “What is your experience about domestic violence?“. According to the research progress some other questions were asked in line with the main question of the research.

The conducted interviews were analyzed by using the 7 steps Colizzi’s method [ 17 ]. In order to empathize with the participants, each interview was read several times and transcribed. Then two researchers (M.Sh. and M.N.) extracted the phrases that were directly related to the phenomenon of domestic violence against women independently and distinguished from other sentences by underlining them. Then these codes were organized into thematic clusters and the formulated concepts were sorted into specific thematic categories.

In the final stage, in order to make the data reliable, the researcher again referred to 2 participants and checked their agreement with their perceptions of the content. Also, possible important contents were discussed and clarified, and in this way, agreement and approval of the samples was obtained.

Quantitative method

The cross-sectional study was implemented from February 2021 to March 2022 with cluster sampling of married women in areas of 3 healthcare centers in Semnan city. Those participants who were married and agreed with the written and verbal informed consent about the ethical considerations were included to the study. The questionnaire was completed by the participants in paper and online form.

The instrument was the standard questionnaire of domestic violence against women by Mohseni Tabrizi et al. [ 18 ]. In the questionnaire, questions 1–10, 11–36, 37–65 and 66–71 related to sociodemographic information, types of spousal abuse (psychological, economical, physical and sexual violence), patriarchal beliefs and traditions and family upbringing and learning violence, respectively. In total, this questionnaire has 71 items.

The scoring of the questionnaire has two parts and the answers to them are based on the Likert scale. Questions 11–36 and 66–71 are answered with always [ 4 ] to never (0) and questions 37–65 with completely agree [ 4 ] to completely disagree (0). The minimum and maximum score is 0 and 300, respectively. The total score of 0–60, 61–120 and higher than 121 demonstrates low, moderate and severe domestic violence against women, respectively [ 18 ].

In the study by Tabrizi et al., to evaluate the validity and reliability of this questionnaire, researchers tried to measure the face validity of the scale by the previous research. Those items and questions which their accuracies were confirmed by social science professors and experts used in the research, finally. The total Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.183, which confirmed that the reliability of the questions and items of the questionnaire is sufficient [ 18 ].

Descriptive data were reported using mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentage. Then, to measure the relationship between the variables, χ2 and Pearson tests also variance and regression analysis were performed. All analysis were performed by using SPSS version 26 and the significance level was considered as p < 0.05.

Qualitative results

According to the third step of Colaizzi’s 7-step method, the researcher attempted to conceptualize and formulate the extracted meanings. In this step, the primary codes were extracted from the important sentences related to the phenomenon of violence against women, which were marked by underlining, which are shown below as examples of this stage and coding.

The primary code of indifference to the father’s role was extracted from the following sentences. This is indifference in the role of the father in front of the children.

“Some time ago, I told him that our daughter is single-sided deaf. She has a doctor’s appointment; I have to take her to the doctor. He said that I don’t have money to give you. He doesn’t force himself to make money anyway” (p 2, 33 yrs).

“He didn’t value his own children. He didn’t think about his older children” (p 4, 54 yrs).

The primary code extracted here included lack of commitment in the role of head of the household. This is irresponsibility towards the family and meeting their needs.

“My husband was fired from work after 10 years due to disorder and laziness. Since then, he has not found a suitable job. Every time he went to work, he was fired after a month because of laziness” (p 7, 55 yrs).

“In the evening, he used to get dressed and go out, and he didn’t come back until late. Some nights, I was so afraid of being alone that I put a knife under my pillow when I slept” (p 2, 33 yrs).

A total of 246 primary codes were extracted from the interviews in the third step. In the fourth step, the researchers put the formulated concepts (primary codes) into 85 specific sub-categories.

Twenty-three categories were extracted from 85 sub-categories. In the sixth step, the concepts of the fifth step were integrated and formed seven themes (Table  2 ).

These themes included “Facilitators”, “Role failure”, “Repressors”, “Efforts to preserve the family”, “Inappropriate solving of family conflicts”, “Consequences”, and “Inefficient supportive systems” (Fig.  1 ).

Themes of domestic violence against women

Some of the statements of the participants on the theme of “ Facilitators” are listed below:

Husband’s criminal record

“He got his death sentence for drugs. But, at last it was ended for 10 years” (p 4, 54 yrs).

Inappropriate age for marriage

“At the age of thirteen, I married a boy who was 25 years old” (p 8, 25 yrs).

“My first husband obeyed her parents. I was 12–13 years old” (p 3, 32 yrs).

“I couldn’t do anything. I was humiliated” (p 1, 38 yrs).

“A bridegroom came. The mother was against. She said, I am young. My older sister is not married yet, but I was eager to get married. I don’t know, maybe my father’s house was boring for me” (p 2, 33 yrs).

“My parents used to argue badly. They blamed each other and I always wanted to run away from these arguments. I didn’t have the patience to talk to mom or dad and calm them down” (p 5, 39 yrs).

Overdependence

“My husband’s parents don’t stop interfering, but my husband doesn’t say anything because he is a student of his father. My husband is self-employed and works with his father on a truck” (p 8, 25 yrs).

“Every time I argue with my husband because of lack of money, my mother-in-law supported her son and brought him up very spoiled and lazy” (p 7, 55 yrs).

Bitter memories

“After three years, my mother married her friend with my uncle’s insistence and went to Shiraz. But, his condition was that she did not have the right to bring his daughter with her. In fact, my mother also got married out of necessity” (p 8, 25 yrs).

Some of their other statements related to “ Role failure” are mentioned below:

Lack of commitment to different roles

“I got angry several times and went to my father’s house because of my husband’s bad financial status and the fact that he doesn’t feel responsible to work and always says that he cannot find a job” (p 6, 48 yrs).

“I saw that he does not want to change in any way” (p 4, 54 yrs).

“No matter how kind I am, it does not work” (p 1, 38 yrs).

Some of their other statements regarding “ Repressors” are listed below:

Fear and silence

“My mother always forced me to continue living with my husband. Finally, my father had been poor. She all said that you didn’t listen to me when you wanted to get married, so you don’t have the right to get angry and come to me, I’m miserable enough” (p 2, 33 yrs).

“Because I suffered a lot in my first marital life. I was very humiliated. I said I would be fine with that. To be kind” (p1, 38 yrs).

“Well, I tell myself that he gets angry sometimes” (p 3, 32 yrs).

Shame from society

“I don’t want my daughter-in-law to know. She is not a relative” (p 4, 54 yrs).

Some of the statements of the participants regarding the theme of “ Efforts to preserve the family” are listed below:

Hope and trust

“I always hope in God and I am patient” (p 2, 33 yrs).

Efforts for children

“My divorce took a month. We got a divorce. I forgave my dowry and took my children instead” (p 2, 33 yrs).

Some of their other statements regarding the “ Inappropriate solving of family conflicts” are listed below:

Child-bearing thoughts

“My husband wanted to take me to a doctor to treat me. But my father-in-law refused and said that instead of doing this and spending money, marry again. Marriage in the clans was much easier than any other work” (p 8, 25 yrs).

Lack of effective communication

“I was nervous about him, but I didn’t say anything” (p 5, 39 yrs).

“Now I am satisfied with my life and thank God it is better to listen to people’s words. Now there is someone above me so that people don’t talk behind me” (p 2, 33 yrs).

Some of their other statements regarding the “ Consequences” are listed below:

Harm to children

“My eldest daughter, who was about 7–8 years old, behaved differently. Oh, I was angry. My children are mentally depressed and argue” (p 5, 39 yrs).

After divorce

“Even though I got a divorce, my mother and I came to a remote area due to the fear of what my family would say” (p 2, 33 yrs).

Social harm

“I work at a retirement center for living expenses” (p 2, 33 yrs).

“I had to go to clean the houses” (p 5, 39 yrs).

Non-acceptance in the family

“The children’s relationship with their father became bad. Because every time they saw their father sitting at home smoking, they got angry” (p 7, 55 yrs).

Emotional harm

“When I look back, I regret why I was not careful in my choice” (p 7, 55 yrs).

“I felt very bad. For being married to a man who is not bound by the family and is capricious” (p 9, 36 yrs).

Some of their other statements regarding “ Inefficient supportive systems” are listed below:

Inappropriate family support

“We didn’t have children. I was at my father’s house for about a month. After a month, when I came home, I saw that my husband had married again. I cried a lot that day. He said, God, I had to. I love you. My heart is broken, I have no one to share my words” (p 8, 25 yrs).

“My brother-in-law was like himself. His parents had also died. His sister did not listen at all” (p 4, 54 yrs).

“I didn’t have anyone and I was alone” (p 1, 38 yrs).

Inefficiency of social systems

“That day he argued with me, picked me up and threw me down some stairs in the middle of the yard. He came closer, sat on my stomach, grabbed my neck with both of his hands and wanted to strangle me. Until a long time later, I had kidney problems and my neck was bruised by her hand. Given that my aunt and her family were with us in a building, but she had no desire to testify and was afraid” (p 3, 32 yrs).

Undesired training and advice

“I told my mother, you just said no, how old I was? You never insisted on me and you didn’t listen to me that this man is not good for you” (p 9, 36 yrs).

Quantitative results

In the present study, 376 married women living in Semnan city participated in this study. The mean age of participants was 38.52 ± 10.38 years. The youngest participant was 18 and the oldest was 73 years old. The maximum age difference was 16 years. The years of marriage varied from one year to 40 years. Also, the number of children varied from no children to 7. The majority of them had 2 children (109, 29%). The sociodemographic characteristics of the participants are summarized in the table below (Table  3 ).

The frequency distribution (number and percentage) of the participants in terms of the level of violence was as follows. 89 participants (23.7%) had experienced low violence, 59 participants (15.7%) had experienced moderate violence, and 228 participants (60.6%) had experienced severe violence.

Cronbach’s alpha for the reliability of the questionnaire was 0.988. The mean and standard deviation of the total score of the questionnaire was 143.60 ± 74.70 with a range of 3-244. The relationship between the total score of the questionnaire and its fields, and some demographic variables is summarized in the table below (Table  4 ).

As shown in the table above, the variables of age, age difference and number of years of marriage have a positive and significant relationship, and the variable of number of children has a negative and significant relationship with the total score and all fields of the questionnaire (p < 0.05). However, the variable of education level difference showed no significant relationship with the total score and any of the fields. Also, the highest average score is related to patriarchal beliefs compared to other fields.

The comparison of the average total scores separately according to each variable showed the significant average difference in the variables of the previous marriage history of the woman, the result of the previous marriage of the woman, the education of the woman, the education of the man, the income of the woman, the income of the man, and the physical disease of the man (p < 0.05).

In the regression model, two variables remained in the final model, indicating the relationship between the variables and violence score and the importance of these two variables. An increase in women’s education and income level both independently show a significant relationship with an increase in violence score (Table  5 ).

The results of analysis of variance to compare the scores of each field of violence in the subgroups of the participants also showed that the experience and result of the woman’s previous marriage has a significant relationship with physical violence and tradition and family upbringing, the experience of the man’s previous marriage has a significant relationship with patriarchal belief, the education level of the woman has a significant relationship with all fields and the level of education of the man has a significant relationship with all fields except tradition and family upbringing (p < 0.05).

According to the results of both quantitative and qualitative studies, variables such as the young age of the woman and a large age difference are very important factors leading to an increase in violence. At a younger age, girls are afraid of the stigma of society and family, and being forced to remain silent can lead to an increase in domestic violence. As Gandhi et al. (2021) stated in their study in the same field, a lower marriage age leads to many vulnerabilities in women. Early marriage is a global problem associated with a wide range of health and social consequences, including violence for adolescent girls and women [ 12 ]. Also, Ahmadi et al. (2017) found similar findings, reporting a significant association among IPV and women age ≤ 40 years [ 19 ].

Two others categories of “Facilitators” in the present study were “Husband’s criminal record” and “Overdependence” which had a sub-category of “Forced cohabitation”. Ahmadi et al. (2017) reported in their population-based study in Iran that husband’s addiction and rented-householders have a significant association with IPV [ 19 ].

The patriarchal beliefs, which are rooted in the tradition and culture of society and family upbringing, scored the highest in relation to domestic violence in this study. On the other hand, in qualitative study, “Normalcy” of men’s anger and harassment of women in society is one of the “Repressors” of women to express violence. In the quantitative study, the increase in the women’s education and income level were predictors of the increase in violence. Although domestic violence is more common in some sections of society, women with a wide range of ages, different levels of education, and at different levels of society face this problem, most of which are not reported. Bukuluki et al. (2021) showed that women who agreed that it is good for a man to control his partner were more likely to experience physical violence [ 20 ].

Domestic violence leads to “Consequences” such as “Harm to children”, “Emotional harm”, “Social harm” to women and even “Non-acceptance in their own family”. Because divorce is a taboo in Iranian culture and the fear of humiliating women forces them to remain silent against domestic violence. Balsarkar (2021) stated that the fear of violence can prevent women from continuing their studies, working or exercising their political rights [ 8 ]. Also, Walker-Descarte et al. (2021) recognized domestic violence as a type of child maltreatment, and these abusive behaviors are associated with mental and physical health consequences [ 21 ].

On the other hand and based on the “Lack of effective communication” category, ignoring the role of the counselor in solving family conflicts and challenges in the life of couples in the present study was expressed by women with reasons such as lack of knowledge and family resistance to counseling. Several pathologies are needed to investigate increased domestic violence in situations such as during women’s pregnancy or infertility. Because the use of counseling for couples as a suitable solution should be considered along with their life challenges. Lin et al. (2022) stated that pregnant women were exposed to domestic violence for low birth weight in full term delivery. Spouse violence screening in the perinatal health care system should be considered important, especially for women who have had full-term low birth weight infants [ 22 ].

Also, lack of knowledge and low level of education have been found as other factors of violence in this study, which is very prominent in both qualitative and quantitative studies. Because the social systems and information about the existing laws should be followed properly in society to act as a deterrent. Psychological training and especially anger control and resilience skills during education at a younger age for girls and boys should be included in educational materials to determine the positive results in society in the long term. Manouchehri et al. (2022) stated that it seems necessary to train men about the negative impact of domestic violence on the current and future status of the family [ 23 ]. Balsarkar (2021) also stated that men and women who have not had the opportunity to question gender roles, attitudes and beliefs cannot change such things. Women who are unaware of their rights cannot claim. Governments and organizations cannot adequately address these issues without access to standards, guidelines and tools [ 8 ]. Machado et al. (2021) also stated that gender socialization reinforces gender inequalities and affects the behavior of men and women. So, highlighting this problem in different fields, especially in primary health care services, is a way to prevent IPV against women [ 24 ].

There was a sub-category of “Inefficiency of social systems” in the participants experiences. Perhaps the reason for this is due to insufficient education and knowledge, or fear of seeking help. Holmes et al. (2022) suggested the importance of ascertaining strategies to improve victims’ experiences with the court, especially when victims’ requests are not met, to increase future engagement with the system [ 25 ]. Sigurdsson (2019) revealed that despite high prevalence numbers, IPV is still a hidden and underdiagnosed problem and neither general practitioner nor our communities are as well prepared as they should be [ 26 ]. Moreira and Pinto da Costa (2021) found that while victims of domestic violence often agree with mandatory reporting, various concerns are still expressed by both victims and healthcare professionals that require further attention and resolution [ 27 ]. It appears that legal and ethical issues in this regard require comprehensive evaluation from the perspectives of victims, their families, healthcare workers, and legal experts. By doing so, better practical solutions can be found to address domestic violence, leading to a downward trend in its occurrence.

Some of the variables of violence against women have been identified and emphasized in many studies, highlighting the necessity of policymaking and social pathology in society to prevent and use operational plans to take action before their occurrence. Breaking the taboo of domestic violence and promoting divorce as a viable solution after counseling to receive objective results should be implemented seriously to minimize harm to women, children, and their families.

Limitations

Domestic violence against women is an important issue in Iranian society that women resist showing and expressing, making researchers take a long-term process of sampling in both qualitative and quantitative studies. The location of the interview and the women’s fear of their husbands finding out about their participation in this study have been other challenges of the researchers, which, of course, they attempted to minimize by fully respecting ethical considerations. Despite the researchers’ efforts, their personal and professional experiences, as well as the studies reviewed in the literature review section, may have influenced the study results.

Data Availability

Data and materials will be available upon email to the corresponding author.

Abbreviations

Intimate Partner Violence

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

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Acknowledgements

The authors of this study appreciate the Deputy for Research and Technology of Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Social Determinants of Health Research Center of Semnan University of Medical Sciences and all the participants in this study.

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M.Sh. contributed to the first conception and design of this research; M.Sh., Z.Kh., M.S., R.Gh. and S.H.Sh. contributed to collect data; M.N. and M.Sh. contributed to the analysis of the qualitative data; M.M. and M.Sh. contributed to the analysis of the quantitative data; M.SH., M.N. and M.M. contributed to the interpretation of the data; M.Sh., M.S. and S.H.Sh. wrote the manuscript. M.Sh. prepared the final version of manuscript for submission. All authors reviewed the manuscript meticulously and approved it. All names of the authors were listed in the title page.

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Shayestefar, M., Saffari, M., Gholamhosseinzadeh, R. et al. A qualitative quantitative mixed methods study of domestic violence against women. BMC Women's Health 23 , 322 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-023-02483-0

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A Systematic Review of Culturally Competent Family Violence Responses to Women in Primary Care

Bijaya pokharel.

1 Judith Lumley Centre, School of Nursing and Midwifer, y, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia

Jane Yelland

2 Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, Australia

Leesa Hooker

Angela taft, associated data.

Supplemental Material, sj-pdf-1-tva-10.1177_15248380211046968 for A Systematic Review of Culturally Competent Family Violence Responses to Women in Primary Care by Bijaya Pokharel, Jane Yelland, Leesa Hooker and Angela Taft in Trauma, Violence, & Abuse

Supplemental Material, sj-pdf-2-tva-10.1177_15248380211046968 for A Systematic Review of Culturally Competent Family Violence Responses to Women in Primary Care by Bijaya Pokharel, Jane Yelland, Leesa Hooker and Angela Taft in Trauma, Violence, & Abuse

Existing culturally competent models of care and guidelines are directing the responses of healthcare providers to culturally diverse populations. However, there is a lack of research into how or if these models and guidelines can be translated into the primary care context of family violence. This systematic review aimed to synthesise published evidence to explore the components of culturally competent primary care response for women experiencing family violence. We define family violence as any form of abuse perpetrated against a woman either by her intimate partner or the partner’s family member. We included English language peer-reviewed articles and grey literature items that explored interactions between culturally diverse women experiencing family violence and their primary care clinicians. We refer women of migrant and refugee backgrounds, Indigenous women and women of ethnic minorities collectively as culturally diverse women. We searched eight electronic databases and websites of Australia-based relevant organisations. Following a critical interpretive synthesis of 28 eligible peer-reviewed articles and 16 grey literature items, we generated 11 components of culturally competent family violence related primary care. In the discussion section, we interpreted our findings using an ecological framework to develop a model of care that provides insights into how components at the primary care practice level should coordinate with components at the primary care provider level to enable efficient support to these women experiencing family violence. The review findings are applicable beyond the family violence primary care context.

Family violence includes acts of physical, sexual and psychological violence, and forms of controlling behaviours directed against a family member ( Victorian Current Acts, 2008 ). When such acts of abuse are perpetrated by an intimate partner, it is termed ‘intimate partner violence’ ( Devries et al., 2013 , p. 1527). In our study, we define family violence as any abusive or controlling behaviours directed against a woman by her former or current spouse or non-marital partner or the partner’s family members such as in-laws. We have chosen the term family violence because the authors are based in Victoria, Australia, where the term is more frequently used at the policy level and is preferred by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities (Indigenous Australians), and some immigrant and refugee communities ( Australian Law Reform Commission, 2010 ). Primary care is defined here as the non-emergency first point of entry to the healthcare system ( Keleher, 2001 ). General or family practices, maternal and child health care centres, community health care centres and clinics run by allied health care providers such as psychologists and physiotherapists are examples of primary care settings.

Operational Definition of Terms

Women of immigrant and refugee backgrounds are defined as women born outside of their country of residence. It is likely that many women of immigrant and refugee background come from countries where the language is different to the national or spoken language in the country in which they settle. For this review, ethnically diverse refers to women from minority ethnic/racial groups and women from countries where English is not their first language. We do not have a specific definition for Indigenous women as Indigenous people have argued against the use of a formal definition ( United Nations, 2009 ). We acknowledge that the women from different immigrant and refugee backgrounds, Indigenous women and women of ethnic minorities, collectively referred to as culturally diverse women throughout this paper, have unique needs and experiences. In this study, we focus on a common issue faced by these women – a lack of family violence support from their primary care providers that is responsive to their needs.

Prevalence of Family Violence

Globally, 26% of married/partnered women aged 16 years and above have experienced either physical and/or sexual forms of violence from their partners ( World Health Organisation, 2021 ). It is important to note that this global figure may not represent the true prevalence among culturally diverse women because they are at a higher risk of victimisation and of being murdered by their intimate partners ( Black et al., 2011 ; Petrosky et al., 2017 ; Roy & Marcellus, 2019 ; Sabri et al., 2018a ; Willis, 2011 ). Individual studies have shown higher rates of intimate partner violence against Indigenous women (40–100%) and women from immigrant backgrounds (17% to 70.5%) ( Chmielowska & Fuhr, 2017 ; Gonçalves & Matos, 2016 ).

Cultural Diversity and Family Violence

The experiences of culturally diverse women of family violence are often intertwined with experiences of racism, language barriers, inequitable access to healthcare, support services, education, and employment opportunities, and to poor living conditions ( Klingspohn, 2018 ; Vaughan et al., 2016 ). Compared to non-immigrant women, women of immigrant and refugee backgrounds face additional barriers such as past exposure to torture and war, fear of deportation, language barriers, social isolation and difficulty accessing support services ( Amanor-Boadu et al., 2012 ; Guruge et al., 2010 ; Vaughan et al., 2016 ). For Indigenous women, the intergenerational traumatic effects of colonisation that have resulted in inequitable social determinants of health cannot be separated from their experiences of family violence ( Klingspohn, 2018 ). For culturally diverse women, trauma experiences should also be considered along with gender norms, family values and beliefs, and settlement experiences (employment, financial, housing, etc.) to gain a clearer understanding of their situation ( Vaughan et al., 2016 ). Therefore, support systems that can respond to the needs of culturally diverse women experiencing family violence are necessary.

Primary Care and Family Violence

Primary care providers such as general practitioners, or midwives are often the first line of support for women experiencing family violence because such women are at a greater risk for depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, chronic pain, gastrointestinal problems, physical injuries, reproductive health problems such as abortions and sexually transmitted infections as a result of exposure to the violence ( Campbell, 2002 ; DHHS, 2019 ; Usta & Taleb, 2014 ). In addition to addressing these health issues, primary care providers could provide a safe space for disclosure of experiences of violence and refer women to family violence support agencies ( Hegarty & O’Doherty, 2011 ; Usta & Taleb, 2014 ). However, cultural beliefs that family violence is a private matter, immigrant women’s negative perception about their primary care providers based on their past experiences in their country of origin and Indigenous women’s lack of trust in non-Indigenous care providers could prevent culturally diverse women from seeking support ( Spangaro et al., 2019 ; Vaughan et al., 2016 ). If primary care providers could be responsive to these needs, they could provide support before the violence worsens ( Usta & Taleb, 2014 ).

Cultural Competency and Primary Care

A culturally competent primary care system could be an essential source of support for diverse families, a lack of which has been associated with inequitable access to healthcare and resulting differences in healthcare outcomes ( Betancourt et al., 2016 ; National Health and Medical Research Council, 2005 ). Cultural competence has been defined as a ‘set of congruent behaviours, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency, or among professionals and enable that system, agency or those professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural activities’ ( Cross et al., 1989 , p. 3). Frequently discussed components of cultural competence are awareness of prejudices and stereotypes, knowledge of cultural norms and beliefs, attitudes that respect cultural differences and skills to interact with culturally diverse population ( Campinha-Bacote, 2002 ; Cross et al., 1989 ; Henderson et al., 2018 ). Given the wide variation in the cultural and ethnic backgrounds of women and their families, primary care providers’ limited understanding about working with culturally diverse clients experiencing family violence could pose a barrier to effective care provision ( Burman et al., 2004 ; Cross-Sudworth, 2009 ). Although guidelines on culturally competent care for primary care clinicians are available, they are not specific to the context of family violence ( Handtke et al., 2019 ; Migrant & Refugee Women’s Health Partnership, 2019 ).

This paper aims to systematically review and summarise the published evidence to identify the components of culturally competent family violence response in primary care. We expect that the results from this review will provide a concrete understanding of how primary care providers can better deliver safe and supportive family violence care to culturally and ethnically diverse women.

Our specific research question is: What components of primary care practice demonstrate cultural competency from the perspective of culturally and ethnically diverse women who experience family violence and/or from the perspective primary care professionals working with these women?

Critical Interpretive Synthesis

We conducted a systematic review using critical interpretive synthesis (CIS) methods. CIS is a review method that allows rigorous and systematic synthesis of evidence from sources that use diverse methodologies. Since our topic is underdeveloped, use of CIS allows us to integrate findings from primary research that uses different methodologies, and from a wide range of grey literature. CIS moves beyond mere aggregation of findings to critical interpretation that is essential to answer our review question ( Dixon-Woods et al., 2006 ; Schick-Makaroff et al., 2016 ). In addition, CIS employs theoretical sampling methods to include studies of areas that need further exploration based on author’s decisions ( Dixon-Woods et al., 2006 ). This approach, although, different to the conventional methods used in a systematic review, is central to the CIS method where the authors can decide whether to expand the included literature to aid the development of a theory ( Dixon-Woods et al., 2006 ). Although CIS does not require appraisal of the included studies, we have assessed the quality to enhance the rigour of the study findings by providing an insight into the strength of the evidence ( Crowe, 2013 ). Similarly, we have adhered to a pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria and described the search process in detail to increase transparency.

Literature Search

We searched eight academic databases (Ovid Medline, Ovid EMBASE, Ovid PsychInfo, Sociological Abstract, Proquest Theses and Dissertation Global, CINAHL, Scopus and Web of Science) for articles published between January 1970 and July 2019. We used different combinations of the following keywords: ‘intimate partner violence’ or ‘domestic violence’ or ‘spouse abuse’ or ‘wife abuse’ or ‘family violence’ or ‘battered women’” or ‘partner violence’ or ‘gender violence’ or ‘marital rape’ AND ‘cultural competency’ or ‘cultural sensitivity’ or ‘cultural awareness’ or ‘culturally responsive’. For grey literature, we searched international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the World Health Organization and United Nations-Women, and national NGOs based in Australia ( Supplementary File 1 ). We updated the search in May 2020. We looked at new publications across the eight databases published after our initial search date, consulted our immediate academic networks and examined the references of included studies. While screening the studies obtained from the updated search, in line with the theoretical sampling method used in the CIS, our additional new focus was on studies that explored risk assessment and safety planning for culturally diverse women experiencing family violence ( Pokharel et al., 2021 ). This additional focus was deemed necessary because risk assessment and safety planning were not discussed by any of the studies that were included following the first search.

Study Selection

Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

We included peer-reviewed articles that (a) focused on women (cisgender, and transgender women, and women in heterosexual or same sex relationships) 16+ years of age who experience family violence attending a primary care setting or sharing their experiences of interaction with a primary care provider OR primary care providers sharing their experiences of interactions with women experiencing family violence OR children exposed to family violence if the paper discusses primary care responses to women (as parent of the child) and (b) published in the English, Nepali and Hindi languages because one of the study authors was proficient in these languages. Our outcomes of interest were ethnically diverse women’s expectations of care from their primary care providers, practices/processes of primary care providers while interacting with women, and standards/guidelines/frameworks, and conceptual discussion of culturally competent primary care family violence responses.

Since the reviewers are based in Australia, in our review protocol, we acknowledged that significant work could have been done in the area of family violence experienced by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations. We proposed that the components of cultural competency generated from these studies would either be treated as a subset or would be incorporated with the findings generated from other studies, based on the number of studies that we find (Pokharel et al., 2020). Similarly, we clarified that the reason we had not limited the inclusion to women from immigrant and refugee backgrounds is because we wanted to include studies that have been conducted in women’s countries of origin. This would give us an understanding of what women’s care expectations from their primary care providers are, when they immigrate to other countries (Pokharel et al., 2020).

This review is situated within a context of a pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial that aims to increase identification of and safety planning for, women of immigrant and refugee backgrounds experiencing family violence. Therefore, our primary interest is women ( Taft et al., 2021 ).

We excluded studies that focused on children alone, teenagers (< 16 years of age) alone, or men experiencing family violence or female victims of war or community-directed violence. This is because the needs of children and young people as specific patients, and men who are perpetrators/victims as patients are unique, and we may not be able to do them justice within a single review. We did not exclude studies based on study design and methodology.

Inclusion and Exclusion of Grey Literature

In this review, grey literature refers to government reports, non-governmental research reports, clinical guidelines, policy documents, and practice frameworks. Since our preliminary search showed that grey items may not focus on all three concepts central to this study (family violence, primary care, and cultural competency), we included grey literature that focused on at least two of these three concepts. We anticipated that inclusion of grey literature with various foci (primary care and family violence OR family violence and cultural competency OR cultural competency and family violence) would result in a comprehensive understanding of a culturally competent primary care response to family violence.

Study Screening

Two reviewers (BP and SP) simultaneously screened all the titles, abstracts and full text using Covidence software ( Covidence, 2020 ). AT helped to resolve any disagreement for a final decision. For the grey literature, BP created a list of search results and screened, and a final check was done by AT, JY or LH.

Quality Assessment

We used the Crowe Critical Appraisal Tool (CCAT) for all peer-reviewed publications ( Crowe, 2013 ). We chose CCAT over other quality assessment tools because it is a valid and reliable tool that can be used for a wide gamut of research designs ( Crowe & Sheppard, 2011a ; 2011b ; Crowe et al., 2012 ). This allowed us to compare quality assessment scores between studies that would not have been possible if we had used different critical appraisal tools based on study designs. For the grey literature, we used the Authority, Accuracy, Coverage, Objectivity, Date and Significance (AACODS) tool. Since AACODS criteria are specific to grey literature such as policy guidelines and practice frameworks/research reports, we used the AACODS for those documents ( Tyndall, 2010 ). The first author BP appraised the quality of the included studies and grey literature, which was then checked by AT, JY and LH. The studies deemed as low quality were reassessed by AT and JY.

Data Extraction

We extracted data on author, country, research design, country of birth, language spoken, ethnicity of women, types of care providers or primary care setting and summary of the findings.

Data Analysis

We imported the included studies into NVivo 12.0 ( QSR-International, 2020 ). We then classified studies into groups based on participant types included because we wanted to identify differences in outcome, if any, between the studies that focused on different participant groups or if the studies were grey literature or conceptual papers rather than primary research (Refer to Figure 1 ). We adopted the five phases of thematic analysis: (a) the reviewer BP read and re-read the included studies to familiarise herself with the data; (b) BP generated the initial codes to identify the semantic content (Refer to Supplementary File 2 ), and LH, AT and JY provided their feedback on how to best combine these codes; (c) the codes were condensed into broader themes; (d) we (BP, AT, LH and JY) reviewed and refined the themes to generate two recurrent themes and eleven sub-themes that represented the findings from women and their primary care providers and (e) we then decided on the names for these themes ( Braun & Clarke, 2006 ). The first author is from a South Asian immigrant background, allowing her to bring her cultural knowledge to the interpretation of the literature.

Critical findings from included studies based on their source of data.

We included 44 records for final analysis ( Figure 2 ).

Study selection flowchart ( Page et al., 2021 )

Study Characteristics

Twenty-eight were peer-reviewed articles and 16 grey literature, and all 16 grey items were published in Australia. Among the 28 peer-reviewed articles, the oldest was published in 1996 and the most recent in 2020. The studies were global, with the majority from the United States of America ( n = 17) ( Table 1 ). The included studies were published in the English language.

Study Characteristics.

Note . a For studies where the types of participants are specified as primary care providers- Characteristics of women - column of the table refers to women to whom primary care providers delivered family violence–related care.

b Quality assessed using CCAT.

c Quality assessed using AACODS.

We divided the CCAT score into three categories: high (31–40), moderate (21–30) and low quality (< 21). Most studies were moderate ( n = 13) or high quality ( n = 13) and then low ( n = 2). We only included moderate quality or high quality studies in our synthesis. All the grey literature met all the AACODS criteria and therefore, was considered high quality. This could be because the sources for grey literature were highly reputed organisations and world-renowned family violence research experts.

The Components of Cultural Competency

We generated eleven components that demonstrated culturally competent family violence practice at the provider level (four components) and at the whole of practice level (seven components). Please refer to Figure 3 .

A culturally competent primary care family violence response model.

Primary Care Provider Level

Awareness of one’s biases and assumptions.

Primary care providers can become aware of their own biases and assumptions by first, understanding the privileged position that comes from majority race membership or a higher socioeconomic status (if they so do) ( Campbell & Campbell, 1996 ; Walker et al., 2014 ). And second, by suspending assumptions about culturally diverse women based on their economic status, educational background, immigration status or ethnic background ( Banks, 2015 ; Briones-Vozmediano et al., 2018 ; Campbell & Campbell, 1996 ; Migrant & Refugee Women’s Health Partnership, 2019 ). For example, selectively screening women for signs of family violence based on a woman’s socio-demographic background or consciously deferring screening in fear of offending her culture ( Campbell & Campbell, 1996 ; Puri, 2005 ).

Awareness of one’s cultural competence can be further enhanced through self-auditing, a process that requires critical self-reflection ( Walker et al., 2014 ). Walker et al. (2014) have adopted the ‘ASKED’ (Awareness, Skill, Knowledge, Encounters and Desire) mnemonic, originally proposed by Campinha-Bacote (2002) to the context of working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and culturally diverse people. This mnemonic can be adapted by primary care providers to reflect on family violence practice (refer to Table 2 ). In addition, engaging in self-reflective practice in whatever way possible could also be beneficial ( Clarke & Boyle, 2014 ).

Self-Cultural Competency Assessment.

Willingness to Understand Women’s Background and Their Expectations

Understanding expectations, cultural values and beliefs of culturally diverse women was the most common component discussed in review studies. A willingness to understand, and preferably to have knowledge of, women’s cultural beliefs, family values and expectations of care is important to providing culturally competent responses ( Aguilar, 2011 ; Alvarez et al., 2018 ; Ashbourne & Baobaid, 2019 ; Briones-Vozmediano et al., 2019 ; Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012 ; Choahan, 2018 ; Joe et al., 2020 ; Migrant & Refugee Women’s Health Partnership, 2019 ; Spangaro et al., 2019 ; Walker et al., 2014 ). Studies of US Arab and Iranian immigrant women reported their discontent with the healthcare system’s lack of family-centred responses ( Ashbourne & Baobaid, 2019 ; Nikparvar, 2019 ).

Women of immigrant and refugee backgrounds experiencing family violence face multiple interrelated barriers to care and silencing about their family violence experiences. Health visitors working with Pakistani immigrant women in northern England reported that women were usually accompanied to primary care centres by a family member, requiring conscious efforts to set up a private consultation session with them ( Smyth, 2016 ). Another study of Latina women in the USA found that they experienced challenges such as language barriers, displacement-related trauma, trauma from living in violent communities, separation from family members and a fear of confidentiality breaches when interpreters were from the same community as the women ( Alvarez et al., 2018 ).

Although we found intra-ethnic variations between women’s preferences for their care provider’s gender and ethnic backgrounds, two expectations commonly expressed by women were respect for and genuine interest in their culture ( Aguilar, 2011 ). Knowledge about women’s cultural values, beliefs and expectations can be obtained through interactions with women from various ethnic backgrounds, expressing interest in women’s culture and paying attention to how they describe their family violence situations ( Campbell & Campbell, 1996 ; Mehra, 2004 ). Learning from colleagues with experience of interacting with diverse women could be a helpful strategy ( Smyth, 2016 ).

Inclusive Values

Continual efforts by primary care providers are necessary to demonstrate inclusive values to culturally diverse women. Awareness of one’s biases and assumptions should be followed by an active commitment to strive against any oppression and racism women face ( Campbell & Campbell, 1996 ). A continual effort towards learning what culturally diverse women find demeaning, and that a woman from an ethnic minority could fear that a clinician from a majority ethnic background could stigmatise her if she discloses family violence is essential ( Campbell & Campbell, 1996 ). Expressing genuine interest in women’s culture is helpful, and this could be communicated by asking women about their background and establishing some sort of common ground ( Aguilar, 2011 ). Questions about women’s immigration status should be best left for the end to avoid alarm since some women may not be legal residents, while others could be concerned about the effects of disclosure on their immigration status ( Mehra, 2004 ). Overall, the aim of primary care providers should be to build trust and create a culturally safe climate to promote disclosure of family violence ( Smyth, 2016 ).

Efficiency in Care Delivery to Women of Various Cultural Backgrounds

Efficiency in care delivery means that when a woman from an immigrant or refugee background or an Indigenous woman seeks family violence support from their primary care providers, the care providers neither feel unprepared nor frustrated; rather, they are knowledgeable and skillful in how to best support the women.

One of the important strategies to achieve efficiency, frequently discussed in the grey literature, was training on access to and use of interpreters ( Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety, 2019 ; Kalapac, 2016 ; Migrant & Refugee Women’s Health Partnership, 2019 ). There could be medico-legal risks if primary care providers fail to either access an interpreter or recognise the need for one (Migrant and Refugee Women’s Health Partnership, 2019b). Several strategies such as timely organisation of an interpreting service, using a pseudonym for the woman, being aware of the woman’s non-verbal cues, creating a code word for safety and avoiding using interpreters from the woman’s community by accessing interstate interpreters would enable safe and efficient use of interpreters ( Choahan, 2018 ; Migrant & Refugee Women’s Health Partnership, 2019 ; The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners, 2014 ).

During clinical assessment of culturally diverse women, primary care providers would benefit from the awareness that women from various backgrounds could intimate about their experiences of family violence differently. A study in Zimbabwe revealed that midwives often discover family violence when enquiring about women’s use of contraception or when uncovering family neglect of pregnant women ( Shamu et al., 2013 ). A US study of Spanish speaking Latina women revealed that two screening questions were more sensitive and specific to identify experiences of intimate partner violence among these women: questions about feeling controlled by their partner and/or on feeling lonely in the relationship ( Wrangle et al., 2008 , p. 265). While screening for family violence, if the primary care provider senses that the woman is hesitant to disclose, asking her in a subsequent visit could be an important strategy ( Alvarez et al., 2018 ; Garnweidner-Holme et al., 2017 ). Similarly, risk assessment instruments, if available, specific to women from immigrant or refugee backgrounds or Indigenous women would be beneficial, because their vulnerabilities are unique compared to the non-diverse population ( Messing et al., 2013 ; Wrangle et al., 2008 ).

Safety planning and referral of women experiencing family violence was the least discussed component. The only study that discussed safety planning for culturally diverse women suggested educating immigrant women on the laws and resources of the new country, providing culturally appropriate accommodation (e.g. those that accommodate children and provide culturally appropriate food), providing English language classes and linking women to support groups and networks ( Sabri et al., 2018b ). Some women even expressed the need to educate the abuser on how to respect women ( Sabri et al., 2018b ). Referral of culturally diverse women, discussed by a single report, should include linking the women to ethno-specific agencies, if possible ( Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012c ).

Primary Care Practice Level

At this level, seven sub-themes were identified: cultural competency assessment, policy, budget, data recording, physical setting, multicultural service and training (refer to Figure 3 ).

Cultural Competency Assessment.

Walker et al. (2014 , pp. 214–215) propose critically reflective questions to understand an organisation’s cultural competence in service delivery to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons or groups. These questions can be adapted by primary care practices to the working context of family violence and culturally diverse women (refer to Table 3 ).

Organisational Cultural Competency Assessment.

The findings from grey literature showed that policies, procedures and information should be in place to allow primary care providers to efficiently support culturally diverse women and refer them to appropriate support agencies ( Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012e ). Organisational policy on use of interpreters, culturally competent activities, recruitment of diverse workers, and staff development and organisational investment in infrastructures (e.g. speaker phones) that enable efficient access to interpreters has been suggested ( Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012b ). At the governance level, involvement of multicultural workers that represent the local ethnic diversity in policy development, and planning and monitoring committees could also be an important strategy to increase organisational cultural competence ( Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012b ; 2012e ).

The grey literature recommended that budget allocation to training, infrastructures and other cultural competence activities would enhance cultural competence of an organisation ( Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012d )

Physical Setting

Physical settings of primary care practices could reflect culturally welcoming environment through visual images and posters in multiple languages that reflect the diversity of their patient population ( Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012c ; Mehra, 2004 ). Family violence brochures in multiple languages for women of all literacy levels should be made available ( Alvarez et al., 2018 ; Mehra, 2004 ).

Data Recording

At the primary care practice level, data recording of clinical assessments of culturally diverse women could include the following: (a) Women’s preference of care provider’s gender and ethnic background ( Immigrant Women’s Domestic Violence Service, 2006 ; Smyth, 2016 ); (b) women’s languages spoken, literacy levels in their first language and in English and need for an interpreter ( Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012a ); (c) family composition, familial support, if cultural beliefs are individual centred or familycentred, community origin (small/emerging), length of time resident in the new country and their current community, and sense of support or belonging to their community ( Ashbourne & Baobaid, 2019 ); and (d) immigration status (permanent residency/temporary residency; visa dependency status; refugee and humanitarian visa) ( Ashbourne & Baobaid, 2019 ; Kalapac, 2016 ).

Multicultural Service

Employing workers from locally representative ethnic backgrounds could create a culturally safe environment and can provide an insight into how patients from differing cultural backgrounds express themselves and the rituals or traditions they follow ( Briones-Vozmediano et al., 2019 ; Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012 )). Consulting with specialist organisations that work with culturally diverse women could be an important strategy ( Northwest Metropolitan Primary Care Partnership, 2016 ).

Training primary care providers in cross-cultural communication, entry and use of the data recorded at the organisational level (refer to data recording) and use of interpreters has been suggested ( Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety, 2019 , Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012 , Centre for Culture Ethnicity and Health, 2012f ; Migrant & Refugee Women’s Health Partnership, 2019 ). For example, primary care practices can use routine recorded data to assess the local cultural diversity, plan multicultural recruitment, develop information materials, and set up interpreters based on the ethnicity and language spoken by the local population.

Overall, our findings showed that culturally competent primary care can be delivered to culturally diverse women through a combination of efforts from primary care settings and the primary care providers.

This unique study has for the first-time explored components of a specific culturally competent family violence related primary care response. We generated two main themes: components of cultural competency at the primary care provider level, and at the primary care practice level. In this section, we use an ecological lens to interpret our findings. The ecological model propounded by Bronfenbrenner (1979) was originally proposed to study the interrelationship between a developing child and the constituents of their environment. Since then, the model has been widely adopted and applied to study a range of phenomena, including the healthcare response to family violence ( Colombini et al., 2012 ; García-Moreno et al., 2015 ; World Health Organisation, 2017 ). Adding a cultural competency lens to these best practice models, we have proposed a model of care that posits women at the centre and nests components at primary care provider level within those at the primary care practice level ( Figure 3 ).

The components identified at the primary care practice level (cultural competency assessment, policy, training, budget, physical setting, data recording and multicultural service) are consistent with the findings from other studies that have focused on healthcare system responses to family violence ( Colombini et al., 2012 ; Goicolea et al., 2013 ). A manual released by the World Health Organisation (2017) for health managers recommended that formulating policy frameworks, collecting data to strengthen advocacy and implement accountability, strengthening health workforce, increasing available infrastructures and improving the overall service delivery are important building blocks for designing and planning health system’s response to family violence.

However, this global best practice model lacks a discussion on how these elements can be applied to culturally diverse women who experience additional issues such as systemic racism, language barriers and cultural beliefs that promote silencing about family violence ( World Health Organisation 2017 ). Another study conducted in Spain with middle level managers showed that, although, policy level changes are critical to integrate family violence response into the healthcare system, stakeholders are the ultimate drivers for sustainable integration ( Briones-Vozmediano et al., 2018 ).

Although our review discussed the elements at the primary care practice level, there was scant discussion of how sustainable culturally competent family violence responses can be integrated into the primary care system. A review conducted as a part of a larger study on family violence done across antenatal care settings in Australia recommended that auditing hospital systems is an important step towards understanding sustainability ( Hegarty et al., 2020 ). In this study, similar to our review findings, patient demographics such as country of birth, language spoken, need for an interpreter and referral to an Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander services were the report fields used for the audit. A lack of explicit discussion on sustainability in our review could be attributed to the fragmented focus of the included studies on different elements of the healthcare system, as sustainability is an ongoing process that requires interaction between those elements ( Gear et al., 2018 ). In addition, research designs of studies that explore healthcare response to family violence have been reported to have limited or no discussion on sustainability ( Gear et al., 2018 ). Our review did not include studies that discussed national family violence laws, and policies with a cultural competency lens – highlighting the need for further research in this area ( Table 4 ).

Implications for Practice, Policy and Research.

At the primary care provider level, the majority of studies discussed the importance of knowledge about and the willingness to understand culturally diverse women’s beliefs and practices, especially those relevant to family values, and broader communal views on family violence. This is in contrast to the findings reported by a qualitative meta-analysis on women’s expectations from their healthcare providers – where the major theme was kindness and care ( Tarzia et al., 2020 ). This could be attributed to the addition of a cultural competency lens in our review, whereby women repeatedly expressed a need to feel understood – for example, immigrant women wanted to know how the disclosure would affect their visa status, whereas Indigenous women felt that non-Indigenous care providers are in a rush to complete the consultation, rather than going beyond the required policies and procedures to really understand them. In our review, an expectation shared by Arab women and Pakistani women was a need for family-centred family violence responses, especially for families that go through an involuntary migration process. This could be because the refugee experience is often characterised by trauma and torture, and exposure to everyday violence, loss of family members, rape as a weapon of war, and mental health issues – the factors contributing to family violence ( Guruge et al., 2010 ; Vaughan et al., 2016 ). Further research is warranted on how or if family-centred responses can be delivered as an early intervention for families of refugee backgrounds, and other families from collectivist backgrounds.

Our review proposed a consensus based culturally competent model of primary care response to family violence. Previous studies that have examined primary care response to non-diverse populations have focused on the training needs of primary care providers, especially on recognising experiences of abuse, providing safe space for disclosure, delivering trauma-informed care and self-care ( Coles et al., 2013 ; Decker et al., 2017 ; Hooker et al., 2021 ; Sohal et al., 2020 ). However, these studies do not provide an insight into how these elements interact with women’s ethnicity and their cultural backgrounds. Within and beyond the context of family violence, the expectation that primary care providers should be knowledgeable about women’s culture and beliefs is sometimes reported as challenging and overwhelming due to the vast diversities of the patient population and the resulting variances in needs ( Zeh et al., 2018 ). As a result, discourse on a combination of cultural humility and cultural competence has been suggested ( Campinha-Bacote, 2019 ). On one hand, although a popular concept, cultural competence has often been criticised for quantifying attitudes and skills required to work in a culturally diverse context and undermining its fluidity, cultivating an expectation that competence can be gained in someone else’s culture ( Danso, 2018 ; Dean, 2001 ; Greene-Moton & Minkler, 2020 ). Cultural humility, on the other hand, promotes self-critique, lifelong learning commitment and challenges organisational power differentials ( Danso, 2018 ; Murray-Garcia & Tervalon, 1998 ). Our review findings build on the concept of cultural competence, while including cultural humility as a sub-construct. The critical self-reflective questions that we have proposed ( Tables 2 and ​ and3) 3 ) lean towards cultural humility, but the overall model is still situated within a cultural competence paradigm.

Strengths and Limitations

A major strength of our review is the breadth of our inclusion criteria. We have included all studies regardless of the study design used and have also included grey literature items. In addition, we have included studies that focus on women, primary care providers, protocols and guidelines of care. This has resulted in a comprehensive examination into the concept of cultural competency in the primary care context of family violence. Although we have used the CIS method, we have appraised the quality of the studies, providing readers an insight into the strength of the evidence. We move beyond mere aggregation of our findings to critical interpretation to generate a model of care. The principles that we discuss could be applicable beyond the primary care context of family violence.

Our review has several limitations. Missing findings on how national elements such as immigration laws, child protection and national family violence policies, and guidelines interact with our findings at primary care provider and practice level limit the application of our study. This could be a focus of future research. Another challenge was integrating findings from sources varied in design, methods and outcomes. To overcome this, we focused on conceptual data analysis to identify key concepts, through multiple reads and examination from multiple perspectives. Since there was no grey literature found that focused on all three concepts (family violence, primary care, and cultural competency), we included studies that focused on at least two of the three concepts. However, we appraised the quality of the grey literature and compared the findings generated from the grey items with those generated from primary studies to identify any notable differences ( Figure 1 ). Although we used the term gender-based violence as a search phrase, we acknowledge that the search terms may not have been sensitive to include studies that focused on nonbinary and two-spirit people. Next, we acknowledge that the proposed model could be broad/too general to offer in-depth guidance to primary care providers interacting with women with complex needs that were not touched on by this review (e.g. women living with disabilities, substance use disorder, etc.). Each element of the proposed model and how it can be applied to the primary care context of women who belong to a particular ethnicity or race deserves further research.

Responding to women experiencing family violence has been perceived as challenging by primary care providers, and cultural diversity adds a layer of complexity that could be a barrier to care provision. However, as society becomes global and the movement of people between countries more common, addressing this barrier becomes more critical. Our review aimed to address the meaning of cultural competency in the family violence primary care context. We identified eleven components that can be adopted by the whole of primary care practice and its care providers. The ecological model that we have proposed, with further research into each of the components, has a potential to create a culturally safe primary care environment, where culturally diverse women can access care, disclose their experiences of family violence and receive care that meets their needs and expectations.

Supplemental Material

Acknowledgements and credits.

We would acknowledge the help provided by Ange-Johns Hayden, Senior Research Advisor at La Trobe University, during the literature search process. Many Thanks to Mr Sandesh Pantha for his help with the title, abstract and full text screening.

Authors’ Biographies

Bijaya Pokharel (MN BScN) is a Registered Nurse and PhD candidate at the Judith Lumley Centre, La Trobe University. Her PhD focuses on process evaluation of a whole of general practice intervention that aims to improve culturally safe responses to women of immigrant and refugee backgrounds experiencing family violence. Her research interests are family violence, cultural competency, primary care, community health nursing, systematic reviews and qualitative research.

Angela Taft is Professor and Principal Research Fellow at the Judith Lumley Centre (JLC), La Trobe University, Australia and an Honorary Senior Fellow in the Department of General Practice, University of Melbourne. She is a social scientist using rigorous combinations of qualitative and epidemiological methods to answer urgent and complex questions about women’s health.

A/Professor Jane Yelland is a Senior Research Fellow and Co-Leader of the Refugee and Migrant Research Program within the Intergenerational Health research group at Murdoch Children’s Research Institute. She is Honorary Principal Fellow at The University of Melbourne, Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care Academic Centre. Her team works in partnership with refugee and migrant communities, clinicians and policy makers in the co-design of equity focussed health service reforms.

Dr. Leesa Hooker is a nurse/midwife academic and Senior Research Fellow at the Judith Lumley Centre-La Trobe University, leading the Child, Family and Community Health nursing research stream within the Centre. She has established expertise in the epidemiology of family violence, women’s mental and reproductive health and parenting.

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study was supported by NHMRC Partnerships in Health Grant No.1134477. Bijaya Pokharel is supported by the La Trobe University Postgraduate Research Scholarship and the La Trobe University Full Fee Research Scholarship.

Supplemental Material: Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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• What is DV?

Frequently Asked Questions about Domestic Violence

• What is domestic violence?
• What are resources available for victims?
• Why do victims sometimes return to or stay with abusers?
• Do abusers show any potential warning signs?
• Is it possible for abusers to change?
• Are men victims of domestic violence?
• Do LGBTQ people experience domestic violence?
• How does the economy affect domestic violence?
• What can I do to help?

1. What is domestic violence?

Domestic violence is a pattern of coercive, controlling behavior that can include physical abuse, emotional or psychological abuse, sexual abuse or financial abuse (using money and financial tools to exert control). Some abusers are able to exert complete control over a victim’s every action without ever using violence or only using subtle threats of violence. All types of abuse are devastating to victims.

Domestic violence is a pervasive, life-threatening crime that affects millions of individuals across the United States regardless of age, economic status, race, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, ability, or education level.

High-profile cases of domestic violence will attract headlines, but thousands of people experience domestic abuse every day. They come from all walks of life. In our annual Domestic Violence Counts Report , the National Network to End Domestic Violence (NNEDV) finds that U.S. domestic violence shelters and programs serve thousands of victims and answer thousands of crisis hotline calls, chats, texts, and emails every day of the year.

Abusive partners make it very difficult for victims to escape relationships. Sadly, many survivors suffer from abuse for decades.

It is important for survivors to know that the abuse is not their fault, and that they are not alone. Help is available to those who are experiencing domestic violence.

2. What are resources available for victims?

Survivors have many options, from obtaining a protection order to staying in a shelter, exploring options through support group, or making an anonymous call to a local domestic violence shelter or national hotline. There is hope for victims, and they are not alone.

There are hundreds of local shelters across the United States that provide safety, counseling, legal help, and other resources for victims and their children.

Information and support are available for victims of abuse and their friends and family:

• If you are in danger, call a local hotline, the National Domestic Violence Hotline, or, if it is safe to do so, 911.
• The National Domestic Violence Hotline provides confidential and anonymous support 24/7. Reach out by phone at 1-800-799-7233 and TTY 1-800-787-3224.
• Loveisrespect provides teens and young adults confidential and anonymous support. Reach out by phone 1-866-331-9474 and TTY 1-866-331-8453.
• WomensLaw.org provides legal information and resources for victims. Reach out by email through the WomensLaw Email Hotline in English and Spanish.
• Technology can be used by victims to increase safety and privacy; it can also be misused by perpetrators to harass, abuse, or harm victims. Find information, including resources and toolkits, related to technology safety at TechSafety.org .
• Financial abuse is widespread. Learn more about rebuilding from financial abuse from The Moving Ahead Curriculum , created in partnership with The Allstate Foundation .
• Find state-specific legal information on WomensLaw.org related to custody, protection orders, divorce, immigration, and more.

TIP: Before using online resources, know that your computer or phone may not be safe. Some abusive partners misuse technology to stalk and track a partner’s activities on a computer, tablet, or mobile device. (Learn more at TechSafety.org .)

3. Why do victims sometimes return to or stay with abusers?

The question is not “ Why doesn’t the victim just leave?” The better question is “ Why does the abuser choose to abuse? ”

The deck is stacked against victims as they navigate safety:

• Abusive partners work very hard to keep victims trapped in the relationship. They may try to isolate the victim from friends and family, thereby reducing the people and places where the survivor can go for support. Through various tactics of financial abuse , abusive partners create financial barriers to safety.
• There is a real fear of death or more abuse if they leave, as abusers may perceive this act of independence as a threat to the power and control they’ve worked to gain, and they may choose to escalate the violence in response. On average, three women die at the hands of a current or former intimate partner every day.
• Through “gaslighting,” abusive partners cause victims to feel like they are responsible for the abuse. Gaslighting is a form of emotional abuse that abusers use to confuse and shift blame onto the victim. This often causes the victim to doubt their sanity and feel like they are responsible for the abuse and therefore able to stop it.
• Abuse takes an emotional and physical toll over time, which can translate to additional health issues that make leaving more difficult.
• Survivors often report that they want the abuse to end, not the relationship. A survivor may stay with or return to an abusive partner because they believe the abuser’s promises to change.

4. Do abusers show any potential warning signs?

There is no way to spot an abuser in a crowd, but most abusers share some common characteristics. Some of the subtle warning signs include:

• They insist on moving quickly into a relationship.
• They can be very charming and may seem “too good to be true.”
• They insist that you stop participating in your preferred leisure activities or spending time with family and friends.
• They are extremely jealous or controlling.
• They do not take responsibility for their actions and blame others for everything that goes wrong.
• They criticize their partner’s appearance and make frequent put-downs.
• Their words and actions don’t match.

It’s important to remember that domestic violence is first and foremost a pattern of power and control. Any one of these behaviors may not be indicative of abuse on its own, until it is considered as part of a pattern of behavior.

5. Is it possible for abusers to change?

Yes, but they must first make the choice to change their behavior. It’s not easy for an abusive partner to stop choosing abusive behavior, and it requires a serious commitment to change. Once an abuser has had all of the power in a relationship, it’s difficult to transition to a healthy relationship where each partner has equal respect and power.

Sometimes an abusive partner stops one form of the abuse – for example, the physical violence – but continues to employ other forms of abuse – such as emotional, sexual, or financial abuse. It is important to remember that domestic violence includes one or more forms of abuse and is a part of an overall pattern of seeking power and control over the victim.

6. Are men victims of domestic violence?

Yes, men can be victims of domestic abuse. Domestic violence is a pervasive, life-threatening crime that affects millions of individuals across the United States regardless of age, economic status, race, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, ability, or education level.

According to data collected from 2003 to 2012, 82 percent of domestic, dating, and sexual violence was committed against women, and 18 percent against men [1]. A 2012 study found that about 4 in 5 victims of domestic, dating, and sexual violence between 1994 and 2010 were women [2].

Pervasive stereotypes that men are always the abuser and women are always the victim discriminates against survivors who are men and discourages them from coming forward with their stories. Survivors of domestic violence who are men are less likely to seek help or report abuse. Many are unaware of services for men, and there is a common misconception that domestic violence programs only serve women.

When we talk about domestic violence, we’re not talking about men versus women or women versus men. We’re talking about violence versus peace and control versus respect. Domestic violence affects us all, and all of us – women, children, and men – must be part of the solution.

7.  Do LGBTQ people experience domestic violence?

Yes, LGBTQ people can be victims of domestic abuse. Domestic violence is a pervasive, life-threatening crime that affects millions of individuals across the United States regardless of age, economic status, race, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, ability, or education level.

At some point in their lives, 43.8% lesbian women and 61.1% of bisexual women have experienced rape, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner, as opposed to 35% of heterosexual women [3].

Twenty-six percent of gay men and 37.3% of bisexual men have experienced rape, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner in their lifetime, in comparison to 29% of heterosexual men [4].

A 2016 report found that more than half (54%) of transgender individuals have experienced intimate partner violence. A 2015 study found that 22% of transgender respondents had been harassed by law enforcement, 6% were physically assaulted, and 46% felt uncomfortable seeking police assistance.

8. How does the economy affect domestic violence?

A bad economy does not cause domestic violence, but it can make it worse. The severity and frequency of abuse can increase when factors associated with a bad economy are present. Job loss, housing foreclosures, debt, and other factors contribute to higher stress levels at home, which can lead to increased violence.

As the abuse gets worse, a weak economy limits options for survivors to seek safety or escape. Additionally, domestic violence shelters and programs may experience funding cuts right when they need more staff and funding to keep up with the demand for their services. Victims may also have a more difficult time finding a job to become financially independent of abusers.

9. What can I do to help?

Everyone can speak out against domestic violence. Use our “10 Tips to Have Informed Conversation about Domestic Violence” to help guide your conversations with friends, colleagues, and loved ones.

Every person can take individual action to create a supportive community for survivors. Get involved in your community – we’ve got ideas for creative ways to get involved in our Get Involved Toolkit .

Members of the public can donate to local, statewide, or national anti-domestic violence programs or victim assistance programs, like NNEDV . Find your state or territory coalition here .

You can call on your public officials to support life-saving domestic violence services and hold perpetrators accountable. Learn more, or take action here .

[1] Catalano, S., U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Special Report: Intimate Partner Violence, 1998-2010. (Nov. 2012, revised Sep. 2015)

[2] Tjaden, P., and Thoennes, N., U.S. Department of Justice. Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence. (July 2000).

[3] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2010 Findings on Victimization by Sexual Orientation,” 2013.

[4] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2010 Findings on Victimization by Sexual Orientation,” 2013.

160 Domestic Violence Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on domestic violence, ✍️ domestic violence essay topics for college, 👍 good domestic violence research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot domestic violence ideas to write about, 🎓 most interesting domestic violence research titles, ❓ domestic violence research questions.

• Domestic Violence and Its Environmental Influences
• Domestic Violence, Consequences and Solutions
• Effects of Domestic Violence on Children and Youth
• Legislation to Stop Domestic Violence Against Women
• Domestic Violence Against Women in India
• Domestic Violence in “Othello” by W. Shakespeare
• Impact of Domestic Violence on Society
• Domestic Violence against Women: Problem Solutions Domestic violence against women is one of the most common social problems that many societies across the world face in modern society.
• Societal and Gender Construction Affecting Incidents of Domestic Violence The paper intends to explore how societal and gender construction can affect the incidences of domestic violence.
• Domestic Violence: Causes and Effects Domestic violence disrupts regular patterns of communication and provides children with behavior models that ruin relationships and suggest the role of an abuser or a victim.
• Domestic Violence Issue in Modern Society Neutralization theory presents freedom in a relationship, condemns deviant behaviors and aims to eliminate oppressive cultures and safeguard ethical human activities.
• Domestic Violence: Justification Is Unacceptable Domestic violence affects all segments of society, but women and children. In the absence of law enforcement oversight, domestic violence continues to increase.
• Feminism and Domestic Violence The paper analyzes the progress made in treating domestic violence, using multiple theories explaining this topic as an example.
• Causes and Consequences of Domestic Violence This literature review aims to discuss the scope of the problem, mention previous findings from academic literature, and assess the available information on the issue of violence.
• Domestic Violence in the Modern Society Domestic violence is an acute and prevalent problem in society which requires research and effective solutions. The incidence of domestic violence is increasing exponentially.
• Revealing Marital Rape as Domestic Violence Marital rape entails sexual action with one’s partner devoid of his or her consent. Failure to get consent is the fundamental component that results in the involvement in violence.
• Domestic Violence and Feminism in Bell Hooks’ Theory The main purpose of this paper is to summarize and assess the ideas of hooks’ theory regarding domestic violence.
• Domestic Violence in America Governmental and non-governmental agencies have often argued that domestic violence is a serious social problem in America.
• Protective Orders and Domestic Violence Review The article provides a vivid introduction with discussion in the current status of the legal status of prevention of family violence.
• Environmental Influences of Domestic Violence and Potential Interventions This paper propose a study on what are the potentials drivers for the increasing rates of domestic violence, and how can different social and healthcare institutions intervene.
• Domestic Violence Issues and Interventions The fact that domestic abuse victims often do not report their cases to the authorities leads to a difference between the actual number of incidents and the official statistics.
• Domestic Violence Forms: Cases Analysis In the cases described in the current research paper, an elderly woman and a six-year-old girl endured several forms of domestic violence.
• Defining Domestic Violence Reasons – Family Law The social phenomenon of domestic violence has given rise to scholarly debates concerning its main causes and consequently the methods for handling the issue.
• The Impact of Domestic Violence on Victims’ Quality of Life Domestic violence (DV) is currently one of the major public health concerns that need to be discussed and analyzed.
• Domestic Violence in the Military Domestic violence is a pervasive problem connected with PTSD, subsequent substance abuse, and occupational hazards that increase stress and result in marital conflict.
• Domestic Violence. “No Visible Bruises” by Snyder A review of the book “No Visible Bruises” by Snyder provides an opportunity to assess the diverse nature of the manifestations of domestic violence in families.
• Abusive Relationships and Domestic Violence Treatment One of the most apparent examples of how exposure to abusive relationships can have adverse outcomes is the nurse practitioner who experienced abuse and manipulation in the past.
• The Connection Between Domestic Violence and Cultural Norms The topic of domestic violence was a natural choice for me, as I have witnessed the results of domestic violence in my work and have done a lot of research on the topic already.
• The Problem of Domestic Violence in Modern Society The unwillingness to report instances of domestic abuse leads to a steep rise in the intensity of violence and the negative experiences that victims suffer.
• Effect of Domestic Violence on Children Domestic violence is a serious issue that can have severe consequences for the development of children that grow up in such environments.
• Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Maternity Domestic abuse directly impacts maternity as women experiencing a hostile environment feel that the conditions are dangerous to personal health and the well-being of a child.
• Domestic Violence and Abuse Countermeasures At the moment, the civilized world condemns domestic violence and has introduced different measures to protect people from this remnant of the past.
• Domestic Violence: The American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) style is a set of rules that describe different components of scientific writing.
• Domestic Violence in Nursing Despite legal repercussions and the established support systems, a large share of victims avoids reporting incidents of domestic violence.
• Effects Of Domestic Violence on Children According to this paper, a child is anyone below the age of eighteen, and it aims at discussing the effects of domestic violence on these children.
• Battered Woman Syndrome as a Theoretical Explanation of Domestic Violence Effects Battered Woman Syndrome is an inductive theory that seeks to explain the reactions of women when they are subjected to domestic violence.
• Resilience and Growth in the Aftermath of Domestic Violence In this paper, the discussion centers on the concept of resilience, spirituality, and its application in the aftermath of domestic violence.
• Violence Against Women: Annotated Bibliography Women who earn more than their spouses have a lower chance of experiencing violence and abuse in their marriages.
• Reducing Domestic Violence: Family Law The current paper states that domestic violence and abuse present a substantial public health problem for different societies worldwide.
• Domestic Violence Against South Asian Women This research essay aims to analyze the concept of domestic violence against South Asian women, its premises, and its impact on modern women’s lives.
• Alcohol and Its Effects on Domestic Violence Alcohol was invented as a beverage drink just like the others, such as soda and juice. Of late, alcohol has been abused because people are consuming it excessively.
• How Non-Profits Address Domestic Violence Both law enforcement agencies and organizations focusing on public health can contribute to the action plan of addressing domestic abuse.
• Domestic Violence: Analysis and Evaluation of Articles This paper evaluates peer-reviewed articles that touch on the subject of domestic violence, and addresses ethical issues related to the use of secondary data.
• The Root Cause of Domestic Violence Domestic violence had great implications on the physical and mental health of the victim. There are many attempts that have been put in place to deal with domestic violence.
• Domestic Violence Effects – Psychology This paper seeks to examine the principles of critical thought in relation to domestic violence. It considers the importance of ethics and moral reasoning.
• Projects or Stop Violence Programs: Domestic Violence The violence mainly happens between the families, dating, cohabitation, marriages, as well as intimate relationship.
• Domestic Violence in Prince Edward County There is a need to establish effective measures to curb the issue of domestic violence since it has been on the rise in the recent past, with women being victimized more.
• Child Domestic Violence Abuse Documentation Past studies have investigated the prevalence of child domestic violence abuse, and the results conclude that there is an average fatality rate of 2.2 children for every 1000.
• Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Children Domestic violence is a complex phenomenon, which has emotional, behavioral, social, cognitive, and physical consequences for children.
• Domestic Violence and Workplace Environment Domestic violence worsens employees’ performance. The entire workplace environment suffers if a single employee is subject to domestic violence.
• Female Victimization and Domestic Violence The paper explores the subject of domestic violence, the long-term effects domestic violence has on victims, and how criminal justice addresses the issue.
• Domestic Violence and Its Main Categories When it comes to domestic violence, there are many categories. These include economic abuse, male privilege use, verbal abuse, isolation, emotional abuse, and intimidation.
• Domestic Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence Domestic abuse and intimate partner violence presents a significant public health problem, and individuals from different backgrounds can be exposed to it.
• Domestic Violence: Prevalence, Types, and Risk Factors Domestic violence may be experienced by a variety of people regardless of age, sex, gender or any of the other numerous factors that might play a role in its manifestation.
• Domestic Violence: Case Study Description Proponents of this model argue that some men will apply diverse tactics to manipulate and control women, such as domestic abuse and violence.
• Domestic Violence in Melbourne: Impact of Unemployment Due to Pandemic Restrictions The purpose of this paper is to analyze to what extent does unemployment due to pandemic restrictions impact domestic violence against women in Melbourne.
• Domestic Violence and Cyber Abuse This paper discusses the issue of domestic violence and elder abuse, including the types of abuse and the vulnerability of elders with Alzheimer’s and dementia.
• The Domestic Violence Effects on Witnessing Children This paper analyzes the effects that domestic violence has on children that bear witness to it. It causes a child to develop severe physical and/or mental problems.
• Domestic Violence Intervention Programs Identification of the weaknesses portrayed by domestic violence programs promotes the provision of adequate strategies to mitigate the problem.
• Working With Victims of Domestic Violence Domestic violence is nowadays a talk of the day; new cases emerge daily. Families have issues that most can amicably resolve while others cannot and can advance to violence.
• Domestic Violence: Preventing Intimate Partner Violence Domestic violence, meaning a violent act committed against a person in a domestic relationship such as a spouse, a relative, or a dating or sexual partner.
• Domestic Violence: “Crime in Alabama” by Hudnall et al. The consequences of domestic violence can be associated with deterioration in the population’s quality of life, psychological problems, or even the victim’s death.
• The #Metoo Movement Against Domestic Violence and Sexual Abuse In opposition to the injustice toward women, the #MeToo movement emerged to fight sexism and harassment, including the struggle for the detention of gender-based violence.
• The Problem of Domestic Violence As a global public health and human rights concern, domestic violence affects the lives of millions of individuals throughout the entire world.
• An Inside View of Police Officers’ Experience with Domestic Violence “An Inside View of Police Officers’ Experience with Domestic Violence” is an article authored by Horwitz et al., published in 2011.
• Domestic Violence During COVID-19 Pandemic The paper reviews the articles: “Home is not always a haven: The domestic violence crisis amid the COVID-19 pandemic”, “Interpersonal violence during COVID-19 quarantine.”
• Domestic Violence and COVID-19 Connection This paper aims to recognize the connection between domestic violence and COVID-19 and unmask the possible cause of the rapid growth of violence issues in marriages.
• Domestic Violence in the US During the COVID-19 The more physically or psychologically vulnerable groups of the population are often subjected to various forms of violence by the more resistant groups.
• Domestic Violence in the African American Community Black women have suffered domestic violence mostly because of gender, race, and poverty, the poor economic conditions have fueled domestic violence in families and fighting.
• Domestic Violence and Survivors Support Domestic violence is a type of violence or any other form of abuse in a domestic setting, victims of which can be both adults and children.
• Racialized Rhetoric: Domestic Violence and Muslim Community The work analyzes the rhetoric in the news article, which discusses forced marriage and compares it to the existing research regarding violence against women and racialization in the media.
• The Bill of Rights: the Case of Domestic Violence Jessica Gonzales is a case of domestic violence. She is a lady that has fallen victim to being shut out of court.
• Reducing Cases of Domestic Violence at All Stages of Pregnancy This essay suggests that intervention mechanisms should be established to reduce cases of domestic violence at all stages of pregnancy.
• Volunteering in the Social Project Providing Legal Assistance to the Domestic Violence Victims Although the U.S. is a progressive country, one in four its women experiences severe partner physical violence.
• The Importance of Domestic Violence Law Domestic violence is a big problem of many families, especially taking into consideration that many victims do not report it as they are not aware of domestic violence laws.
• Domestic Violence and Its Impacts on Children Domestic violence has serious impacts on children. When they grow up in a violent environment, they get affected psychologically and sometimes physically.
• The Reluctance of Gay, Lesbian Victims to Report Domestic Violence Members of the gay community suffer from domestic violence in almost the same magnitude as members of the heterosexual community.
• Community Action vs. Domestic Violence Against Australian Women Strengthening community action in the area of domestic violence against Australian women is one of the greatest decisions which are provided now in Australian society.
• Community and Domestic Violence: Elder Abuse Perhaps the most common type of elder abuse is neglect; this refers to the refusal or failure to provide basic needs such as food, shelter or healthcare to vulnerable adults.
• Ku Klux Klan Ban and Domestic Violence and Race Issues Ku Klux Klan should be declared a terrorist organization and banned for the benefit of the community as a whole.
• Community and Domestic Violence: Violence Against Women The most known form of domestic violence is physical or battering, which causes pain and injury and it involves beating, choking, pushing, biting, kicking, and others.
• Domestic Violence Problem Overview and Analysis The macro-sociological theory tells that the root of violence in families lies within the core system of society and is a reaction to harmful events inside and outside the family.
• New York State Domestic Violence Statics Family violence has been revealed to cause a lot of problems in which; family issues remain unsolved for long, once spouses get into frequent domestic violence.
• Domestic Violence – A Grave Societal Concern Our community faces issues that relate to violence committed on women and for every reason to enjoy conjugal life there is also the need to bear with violence.
• Involving the Health Care System in Domestic Violence “Involving the Health Care System in Domestic Violence: What Women Want” points out the importance of integrating socially accepted means to break the silence related to domestic violence.
• Nurses Caring for Domestic Violence Victims The past experiences of family violence certainly allow nurses to become aware of the nature and processes involved in these situations.
• Changing Course in the Anti-Domestic Violence Legal Movement To address the problem of domestic violence, it is necessary to propose a complex program as a response to this social issue.
• The Realities of Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Our Society The topic of domestic violence was chosen not only for its relevance but also because of the hope to shed light on the adverse influence that the issue has on people.
• Domestic Violence and Non-Therapeutic Interventions In the United States, the issue of domestic violence is closely related to other misfortunate circumstances in people’s lives.
• Domestic Violence as a Topic for Academic Studies The topic selected for the research deals with family issues and is critical for society. Domestic violence is reported all over the world that is why it should not be ignored.
• Domestic Violence in the US of the Last Decade The issue of domestic violence is a global societal problem. In most cases, women are the main victims of this uncivilized behavior with men being the perpetrators.
• Domestic Violence: Control and Prevention Domestic violence occurs when a person is abused by another in the same family. This form of violence is common in relationships, marriages, and families.
• Domestic Violence Experienced by Psychiatric Patients Oram et al. believe that the incidence of domestic violence and abuse can be associated with the victimization among the patients with psychiatric disorders.
• Domestic Violence Problem: Psychiatric Patients The problem of domestic violence experienced by psychiatric patients is particularly acute now that the statistics show the rapidly growing number of the cases of family abuse.
• Domestic Violence as a Research Topic The family abuse that took place in the community, often affected women, elder members of the family, and children.
• Domestic Violence in Federal and State Legislation Despite the fact that much remains to be done to solve the problem of violence in the family, the state and society have contributed to changing the current situation.
• Domestic Violence as a Pressing Issue This work examines a course project on the topic of domestic violence as a pressing issue on which the public cannot come to an agreement.
• Domestic Violence Article and Conservation Model This essay examines the article “Violence against women and its consequences” and assesses the article’s strengths and weaknesses using the conservation model.
• Domestic Violence in Same/Opposite-Sex Relationships In their article, Banks and Fedewa investigate counselors’ attitudes toward domestic violence in same-sex versus opposite-sex relationships.
• Child Corporal Punishment as Domestic Violence The public widely accepts a differentiation between domestic violence and corporal punishment, although the latter can be damaging to children’s health and well-being.
• Domestic Violence in Same-Sex Relationships The article “A Same-Sex Domestic Violence Epidemic Is Silent” by Shwayder addresses the issue of domestic abuse as one of the key concerns of contemporary societal concerns.
• Domestic Violence Typology and Characteristics The typology of domestic violence is based on the nature of the abusive act and provides clues to the underlying reasons for it.
• Domestic or Intimate Partner Violence Intervention Practitioners aim pharmacology-based IPV intervention strategies at relieving the effects of abuse that victims encounter, which may range from mild distress to PTSD.
• Domestic Violence Among Black Immigrant Women This study shows that domestic violence is more prevalent among black immigrant women as compared to other women in the United States.
• Domestic Violence Victims’ Needs Assessment To address domestic violence, it is important to perform a needs assessment and collect the data to develop an effective strategy to withstand domestic violence.
• Nurse’s Help and Policy for Domestic Violence Victims Nurses often found themselves deprived of opportunities to help their patients who are victims of violence because of policy restrictions.
• Domestic Violence Negative Impact on the People Psyche The question of the project is whether children who have experienced domestic violence demonstrate irreversible changes in their mentalities that shift their behaviors to deviant.
• Domestic Violence in the US: Effects on Children Domestic violence is a common practice in many countries. This study finds out how domestic violence affects children in the USA.
• “Addressing Domestic Violence Against Women” by Kaur and Gang Kaur and Gang present arguable aspects regarding ways of addressing the problem of domestic violence against women. Different individuals have divergent views on this subject.
• Domestic Violence Problem and the Impact on the Children’s Psyche The research question of this paper is whether domestic violence results in irreversible changes in children’s mentality and psyche and how its negative impact could be mitigated.
• Domestic Violence and Victims’ Resistance This paper defines, discusses, and solves the problem of domestic violence to guarantee the improvement in the sphere and victims’ ability to resist this problem.
• Domestic Violence, Its Existing and New Solutions Domestic violence is a problem that is researched and monitored by various agencies. Different social care establishments try to create a system for possible interventions.
• Domestic Violence Study and Lessons Learnt Apart from shedding a lot of light on the nature of abusive relationships, the project on domestic violence and abuse helped me develop new research skills.
• Domestic Violence in the Health Policy Domestic violence is a crucial issue that has to be addressed in order to eradicate abuse and help the patients to overcome the issue of retained supremacy.
• Mental Health and Domestic Violence in Bangladesh The paper reviews Ziaei et al.’s article “Experiencing lifetime domestic violence: Associations with mental health and stress among pregnant women in rural Bangladesh.”
• Domestic Violence by an Intimate Partner Most people, especially women, are rejecting any form of violence in intimate relationships as a legitimate social norm. The major factor is the diffusion of global norms.
• Domestic Violence and Public Awareness This academic research increases the audience’s understanding of the severity of the topic of domestic violence and raises public awareness.
• Domestic Violence Intervention in Health Care Domestic violence is a concept that can be described as emotional, verbal, sexual or any other existing kind of abuse that may scare the victim.
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Domestic Violence It is important to note that domestic violence can be discussed as aggressive acts of the physical, psychological, or sexual nature against any family member.
• Conservation Model and Domestic Violence The analysis reveals that domestic violence provokes a chain of negative reaction in females’ structural, social, and personal integrity, and energy.
• Nursing and Midwifery Recognizing Domestic Violence The paper reviews the article “Are We Failing to Prepare Nursing and Midwifery Students to Deal with Domestic Abuse?” by Bradbury-Jones & Broadhurst.
• Domestic Violence in America, Asia, and Africa The paper investigates the issue of domestic violence in the United States and several other cultures, namely, in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Peru, and Brazil.
• Substance Abuse Treatment and Domestic Violence The histories of child abuse and neglect form the present behavior of a person a define his administering treatment needs regarding the fact of whether a person was sexually or emotionally abused.
• The Origin of Domestic Violence The present research is to define the origin of domestic violence and the measures that can be taken in order to lessen the influence of the discovered reason.
• Domestic Violence in Florida The mission of the Florida Department’s Domestic Violence Program is to contribute to creating the safe environments for the victims of domestic violence.
• African American Women: Domestic Violence and Integrity At present, gender profiling still remains an issue, and the present-day African American communities are infamously known as a graphic example of women abuse in society.
• The Impact of Abusive Experiences on Nursing Practitioner’s Performance With the Victims of Domestic Violence This paper aims to discuss positive and negative tendencies that could emerge in the mentioned circumstances.
• Domestic Violence with Disabilities Domestic violence is a kind of act that happens when a member of the family or ex partner tries to harm the other by dominating them physically or psychologically.
• Problems of the Domestic Violence Domestic violence is gaining notoriety each passing day. More and more women are falling victims to this social ill at an alarming rate.
• Child Abuse, Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence The paper analyzes three types of victimization: child abuse, sexual assault and domestic violence. It gives definitions, describes causes and effects of these crimes.
• What Is Meant by Domestic Violence?
• What Do You Feel About Domestic Violence?
• Why Do We Have Domestic Violence?
• Does Domestic Violence Affect a Child’s Future?
• Should Domestic Violence Always Be Prosecuted?
• What Are the Causes of Domestic Violence?
• What Are the Factors Influencing Domestic Violence Against Women in Jamaica?
• Can Domestic Violence Abusers Be Rehabilitated?
• How Far Can Children Be Said to Be Affected by Domestic Violence?
• Are Men Also Subject to Domestic Violence?
• Can the Police Reduce Domestic Violence?
• Does Economic Empowerment Protect Women Against Domestic Violence?
• Does Women’s Labor Force Participation Reduce Domestic Violence?
• What Are the Differences Between Domestic Violence and Family Violence?
• When Did Domestic Violence Become Illegal?
• What Are the 5 Signs of Emotional Abuse and Domestic Violence?
• How Does Domestic Violence Affect a Person Emotionally?
• Where Does Most Domestic Violence Occur?
• Where Is Domestic Violence Most Common in the US?
• How Widespread Is Domestic Violence?
• How Does Domestic Violence Affect a Woman Mentally?
• How Does Domestic Violence Affect a Man?
• What Type of Relationship Has the Highest Domestic Violence Rate?
• What Country Has the Lowest Rate of Domestic Violence?
• What Is the Punishment for Domestic Violence in Canada?
• Can Domestic Violence Cause a Nervous Breakdown?
• Does Domestic Violence Lead to Depression?
• What Do People Need to Know About Domestic Violence?
• Does Domestic Violence Affect the Brain?
• Does Domestic Violence Cause Mental Illness?

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StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 160 Domestic Violence Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/domestic-violence-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "160 Domestic Violence Essay Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/domestic-violence-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "160 Domestic Violence Essay Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/domestic-violence-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Domestic Violence were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 21, 2024 .