describe great zimbabwe essay

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Great zimbabwe.

Great Zimbabwe was a medieval African city known for its large circular wall and tower. It was part of a wealthy African trading empire that controlled much of the East African coast from the 11th to the 15th centuries C.E.

Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations, World History

Great Zimbabwe's Great Enclosure

Great Zimbabwe is the name for the stone remains of a medieval city in southeastern Africa. It is composed of three parts, including the Great Enclosure (shown here). It is believed to have been a royal residence or a symbolic grain storage facility.

Photograph by Christopher Scott

Great Zimbabwe is the name of the stone ruins of an ancient city near modern day Masvingo, Zimbabwe. People lived in Great Zimbabwe beginning around 1100 C.E. but abandoned it in the 15th century. The city was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, which was a Shona (Bantu) trading empire . Zimbabwe means “stone houses” in Shona. Great Zimbabwe was part of a large and wealthy global trading network. Archaeologists have found pottery from China and Persia, as well as Arab coins in the ruins there. The elite of the Zimbabwe Empire controlled trade up and down the east African coast. However, the city was largely abandoned by the 15th century as the Shona people migrated elsewhere. The exact reasons for the abandonment are unknown, but it is likely that exhaustion of resources and overpopulation were contributing factors. The archaeological site at Great Zimbabwe consists of several sections. The first section is the Hill Complex, a series of structural ruins that sit atop the steepest hill of the site. This is generally believed to have been the religious center of the site. The Hill Complex is the oldest part of Great Zimbabwe, and shows signs of construction that date to around 900 C.E. The ruins of the second section, the Great Enclosure, are perhaps the most exciting. The Great Enclosure is a walled, circular area below the Hill Complex dating to the 14th century. The walls are over 9.7 meters (32 feet) high in places, and the enclosure’s circumference is 250 meters (820 feet). The walls were built without mortar , relying on carefully shaped rocks to hold the wall’s shape on their own. Inside the enclosure is a second set of walls, following the same curve as the outside walls, which end in a stone tower 10 meters (33 feet) high. While the function of this enclosure is unknown, archeologists suggest it could have been a royal residence or a symbolic grain storage facility. It is one of the largest existing structures from ancient sub-Saharan Africa. The third section is the Valley Ruins. The Valley Ruins consist of a significant number of houses made mostly of mud-brick ( daga) near the Great Enclosure. The distribution and number of houses suggests that Great Zimbabwe boasted a large population, between 10,000–20,000 people. Archaeological research has unearthed several soapstone bird sculptures in the ruins. These birds are thought to have served a religious function, and may have been displayed on pedestals. These birds appear on the modern Zimbabwean flag and are national symbols of Zimbabwe. The ruins of Great Zimbabwe were designated a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site in 1986. There have only been a limited number of archaeological excavations of the site. Unfortunately, significant looting and destruction occurred in the 20th century at the hands of European visitors. Although they were all too happy to explore and loot the ruins of Great Zimbabwe, in their racism, European colonists thought the city was too sophisticated to have been built by Africans, and instead thought it had been built by Phoenicians or other non-African people. However, despite the damage done by these colonial looters , today, the legacy of Great Zimbabwe lives on as one of the largest and most culturally important archaeological sites of its kind in Africa.

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Great Zimbabwe

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• United States History - Great Zimbabwe
• Ancient Origins - No Queen of Sheba Involved! Great Zimbabwe Ruins and Those Who Fought for the Truth
• World History Encyclopedia - Great Zimbabwe
• UNESCO World Heritage Centre - Great Zimbabwe National Monument
• PBS NOVA - Mysteries of Great Zimbabwe
• Khan Academy - Great Zimbabwe
• Humanities LibreTexts - Great Zimbabwe
• National Geographic - Great Zimbabwe
• LiveScience - Great Zimbabwe: African City of Stone
• University of Houston - Engines of Our Ingenuity - Great Zimbabwe
• The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Great Zimbabwe
• Great Zimbabwe - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• Great Zimbabwe - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)

Great Zimbabwe , extensive stone ruins of an African Iron Age city. It lies in southeastern Zimbabwe , about 19 miles (30 km) southeast of Masvingo (formerly Fort Victoria). The central area of ruins extends about 200 acres (80 hectares), making Great Zimbabwe the largest of more than 150 major stone ruins scattered across the countries of Zimbabwe and Mozambique .

It is estimated that the central ruins and surrounding valley supported a Shona population of 10,000 to 20,000. With an economy based on cattle husbandry, crop cultivation, and the trade of gold on the coast of the Indian Ocean , Great Zimbabwe was the heart of a thriving trading empire from the 11th to the 15th centuries. The word zimbabwe, the country’s namesake, is a Shona (Bantu) word meaning “stone houses.”

The site is generally divided into three main areas: the Hill Complex, the Great Enclosure , and the Valley Ruins. The first two are characterized by mortarless stone construction, but they also include ruined daga (earthen and mud-brick) structures that may once have rivaled the stone buildings in grandeur. The Valley Ruins, located between the Hill Complex and the Great Enclosure, include a large number of mounds that are remnants of daga buildings.

The Hill Complex, which was formerly called the Acropolis, is believed to have been the spiritual and religious centre of the city. It sits on a steep-sided hill that rises 262 feet (80 metres) above the ground, and its ruins extend some 328 feet (100 metres) by 148 feet (45 metres). It is the oldest part of the site; stratigraphic evidence shows that the first stones were laid there about the year 900. The builders incorporated natural granite boulders and rectangular blocks to form walls up to 20 feet (6 metres) thick and 36 feet (11 metres) high. Within the walls are the remains of daga houses.

South of the Hill Complex lies the Great Enclosure, the largest single ancient structure in sub-Saharan Africa. Its outer wall is some 820 feet (250 metres) in circumference, with a maximum height of 36 feet (11 metres). An inner wall runs along part of the outer wall forming a narrow parallel passage, 180 feet (55 metres) long, which leads to the Conical Tower. The purpose of the tower, 33 feet (10 metres) high and 16 feet (5 metres) in diameter , is unknown, but it may have been a symbolic grain bin or a phallus symbol.

Great Zimbabwe was largely abandoned during the 15th century. With the city’s decline, its stoneworking and pottery-making techniques seem to have transferred southward to Khami (now also in ruins). Portuguese explorers probably encountered the ruins in the 16th century, but it was not until the late 19th century that the existence of the ruins was confirmed, generating much archaeological research. European explorers who visited the site in the late 1800s believed it to be the legendary city of Ophir , the site of King Solomon ’s mines. Because of its stonework and further evidence of an advanced culture , the site was variously, and erroneously, attributed to ancient civilizations such as the Phoenician , Greek , or Egyptian . In 1905 the English archaeologist David Randall-MacIver concluded that the ruins were medieval and of exclusively African origin; his findings were confirmed by the English archaeologist Gertrude Caton-Thompson in 1929.

In the late 19th century numerous soapstone figurines in the form of a bird were found in the ruins; this Zimbabwe Bird later became a national symbol, incorporated into the Zimbabwe flag and shown in other places of high honour. Great Zimbabwe became a national monument and was designated a World Heritage site in 1986. Despite its historical importance and its nationalistic role, however, the site has received inadequate government funding for its preservation and scientific study.

Great Zimbabwe

Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city near Masvingo, central Zimbabwe which was inhabited between c. 1100 to c. 1550 (flourishing c. 1300 - c. 1450) in the region’s Late Iron Age . Capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe of the Bantu-speaking Shona people, it is located on a natural citadel and includes many impressive monuments built using granite blocks without mortar.

Clusters of stone buildings were called zimbabwe in Bantu, hence the site and the kingdom's name. One stone structure, the Great Enclosure - a high circuit wall and tower - is the largest ancient monument in Africa south of the Sahara. The city prospered thanks to agriculture , gold deposits, and a trade network which reached the East African coast. It went into decline in the 15th century, probably due to its sources of gold being exhausted or overpopulation, and the Shona moved northwards to a new site at Mutapa . Several soapstone figurines discovered at Great Zimbabwe represent a bird, and this creature today appears on the flag of modern Zimbabwe. Great Zimbabwe was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.

The Zimbabwe Plateau

The Kingdom of Zimbabwe, of which Great Zimbabwe was its capital, was formed by the Shona, a Bantu-speaking people that had first migrated to southern Africa from the 2nd century CE. The exact confines of the kingdom are not known except that its heartland was in central Mashonaland (northern Zimbabwe). The region of the Zimbabwe plateau, located between the Limpopo River in the south and the Zambezi River in the north, is composed of temperate grasslands which are free of the tsetse fly, although rainfall has always been unpredictable with the threat of drought at least once a decade.

The general history of the region in the millennium before Great Zimbabwe was at its height is as follows. From the 3rd century BCE, there is evidence of sheep, goat, and cattle domestication although the practice was not widespread until the 1st century CE. Certainly, small bands of nomadic hunter-gathers had inhabited the area long before the Shona pastoralists arrived with their livestock and iron-smelting technology and, indeed, the two groups would continue to compete for territory right into the modern era.

By the 7th-9th century, communities were established along a pattern which would survive until European colonists arrived from the 16th century. People lived in mud and reed thatch or stone houses. Simple pottery was made, leather for clothing was produced from hides, jewellery was made from copper and gold, and weapons and farming implements from iron. These items were also traded in the region, salt being a valued and needed commodity in the Zimbabwe kingdom. There are also finds of glass beads and seashells, evidence of trade with the coast even at this early date.

The cumulative archaeological evidence points, then, to a society which, from the 10th century, prospered from farming (especially of sorghum, millet, pumpkins, and watermelons), animal husbandry , hunting, and localised trade (using local iron, copper, and gold deposits). As these communities prospered, and as their trade network expanded to the great trade centres of the Swahili coast , so they were able to build more impressive stone monuments from the beginning of the 2nd millennium. Great Zimbabwe, located some 30 km (19 miles) southeast of modern Masvingo, is only the largest of over 300 Iron Age stone sites in the region which today covers modern Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

Architectural Features

Hill Complex

The location of Great Zimbabwe on a natural rise 80 metres (262 ft) high provided both a prominent site for rituals and a place easy to defend. Evidence of a sparse habitation on the citadel, or Hill Complex as it is sometimes known, dates back to the 5th century (according to radiocarbon dates) but was then interrupted and resumed in greater intensity in the 11th-12th century when Iron Age peoples arrived there whose material culture was different from that of the previous occupants. The complex may have functioned at this later date as a religious site, perhaps as a place of burial for chiefs. Alternatively, it may always have functioned as a religious site where ancestors were worshipped and given sacrifices and votive offerings. However, there are remains of mud housing with stone foundations on the acropolis , and it is possible it was used as a royal residence. Sometime in the mid-13th century, the Hill Complex was surrounded by a dry stone wall of granite, a stone which occurs locally and can be easily and naturally split (using fire and then cooling water) into relatively uniform slabs measuring 50-100 cm (19-39 inches) in thickness. This wall incorporates naturally occurring granite boulders.

Great Enclosure

From c. 1000 (if not earlier), the valley below the citadel was inhabited, too. Dominating it is a 13-14th century large elliptical stone wall 5.5 metres (18 ft) thick in places and 9.7 metres (32 ft) high. The wall inclines slightly inwards for added stability and regular channels run through the base to drain the level interior space. There is also a main entrance doorway which faces the Hill Complex and several others which would seem to rule out any military or defensive function of the walls.

Inside is a second wall which in places forms a narrow corridor as it follows the contours of the outer wall and which leads to a tall stone monument or tower. The tower is conical in shape, 5 metres (16 ft) across at its widest part, and reaches a height of 10 metres. Built using drystone granite masonry with precise coursing, the wall and tower are commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure.

The purpose of the structure, which has a total circumference of 250 metres (820 ft), is not known for certain but it may have been a royal residence with the tower used as a granary (grain being a common form of tribute and used by Shona rulers to present as a gift). The most luxurious artefacts of Great Zimbabwe have been found here and at the Hill Complex. However, the peculiar arrangement of the walls and interior platforms and stone buttresses are difficult to explain as a mere residence. Whatever the exact function, most scholars are in agreement that the Great Enclosure would have served as a potent symbol of the prestige and authority of the rulers of Great Zimbabwe.

Valley Ruins

There are, too, many other individual stone buildings also surrounded by high walls in the vicinity, as well as the remains of many large circular mud and pole houses (which pre-date the stone ones). This third area is known as the Valley Ruins. The mud houses are often 10 metres (32.8 ft) in diameter and so the height with their thatch roofs would have been an imposing 6 metres (19.7 ft) or more.

The number and geographical spread of these ruins would suggest an increase in population as the city prospered. Spread over an area of 1700 acres (700 hectares) and with such monumental structures, there was surely a ruling elite and perhaps a centralised authority which ruled over a total population of around 18,000 people. Contact with contemporary cultures in the region is suggested by the similarity of such items as iron bells, traditionally associated with rulers, found at the site and in Shaba and Ingombe Ilede on the middle Zambezi river.

Government & Society

Zimbabwe society, as in other parts of southern Africa, was dominated by male family heads who competed with their peers for power and influence. One of the main methods of acquiring such power was the ownership of cattle. The number of a man's wives was another indicator of success because this corresponded to the labour at his disposal. Women were expected to sow, tend crops, and harvest them, prepare food, and fetch water. Unmarried males hunted, herded animals, and made clothing. Men who had no property of their own might become a dependent of a man with property, who allowed them to assist in herding duties in return for food and shelter. Such dependents were another indicator of a male's success in Zimbabwe society.

The chief of a tribe was likely the wealthiest male, although the post was usually hereditary amongst the Shona. A chief had no army to support his authority and so it is probable that most chiefs sought to accommodate the views of their community's senior males and subordinate chiefs under their nominal control. Archaeological evidence of fire destruction at some sites suggests there were occasional conflicts between competing groups. The stone monuments, at least, are evidence of some sort of political authority, but just what that consisted of is unknown other than that it was rich enough and controlled sufficient labour to build such massive structures.

The male children of the tribe's herd-owning males were educated with their peers for a number of months in isolation from the community. The boys were taught hunting skills, had to endure physical hardship and endurance tests, and were taught the traditions and customs of the tribe. At the end of the training period, they were circumcised and given a new name, which meant the boys had become men. Girls were also given group education where they were prepared for their future role as wives and mothers. When a girl did marry she left her home and lived with the family of her husband, her father presenting a dowry of cattle.

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That Great Zimbabwe had trade links with other states further afield is evidenced by finds of even non-African goods which came via merchants of the East African coast 400 km (250 miles) away. Kilwa and its outpost of Sofala - located in modern Mozambique - became the most prosperous of all the Swahili trading posts thanks to the gold that came in from the kingdom of Zimbabwe. This gold was easily acquired from surface deposits across the Zimbabwean plateau and in the tributaries of the Zambezi River. When these sources were exhausted open mines were dug to a depth of 30 metres (100 ft). Gold, ivory, and copper (often cast in x-shaped ingots) was exchanged for such exotic luxury goods as Chinese Ming porcelain and carved faience from Persia . There were no markets, and this trade was done by barter for the benefit of the ruling elite. There is, then, ample evidence of the wealth this interregional trade brought to the city not only in finds of foreign luxury artefacts but also in both its architecture and art.

Unfortunately for posterity, the site of Great Zimbabwe was systematically looted of anything of value during the European colonialists' activities in the area in the 1890s. Those artefacts that have found their way into the public arena are almost always without any information as to the context in which they were found.

A number of finely carved soapstone figures have been found which include eight representations of birds perched on monoliths over one metre (39 inches) in height. The bird is known as the Zimbabwe Bird and does not resemble any bird in nature; it appears on the flag of the country today. Such artefacts as the soapstone figures hint at the ritual nature of the Great Zimbabwe site. Other sculptures include cattle and nude highly-stylised female figures. Simple unglazed pottery of very good quality was produced - very often given a graphite covering and then polished. Forms include gourd-shaped vessels with distinctive hatched triangular decorations, small disks of uncertain purpose, and models of huts.

Decline & Later History

The precise causes of Great Zimbabwe's decline are not known but competition from rival states and the working out of gold deposits are the most likely explanations. There may have been problems caused by overpopulation, too, such as overworking of the land and deforestation, a situation perhaps brought to crisis point by a series of droughts. Certainly, by the 15th century, any links with coastal trade have ceased. By the second half of that century, the Shona peoples had migrated a few hundred kilometres northwards and formed a new state, the Kingdom of Mutapa. The city of Great Zimbabwe was, thus, largely abandoned, not to be 'rediscovered' until the Europeans arrived in the late 19th century. Blinded by their racism, they could not bring themselves to believe that such a place could have been built by black Africans. This prejudice continued right through to the late 20th century and led to all manner of outlandish explanations for the large stone structures such as wandering Phoenicians setting up a city thousands of miles from their homeland and as far from the sea as physically possible. Archaeological evidence, however, has proved that Great Zimbabwe was built by indigenous black Africans.

The territory once held by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe was still populated but conquered by the Ndebele people in the 19th century when the Kingdom of Matabeleland was formed. By the early 20th century the region was under control of the British South Africa Company, and two new states were formed in 1911: Northern and Southern Rhodesia. The latter state would become the modern country of Zimbabwe in 1980.

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Bibliography

• Chikumbirike, J. et al. "A STUDY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHARCOAL FROM GREAT ZIMBABWE." The South African Archaeological Bulletin , Vol. 71, No. 204 (DECEMBER 2016), pp. 107-118.
• Curtin, P. African History. Pearson, 1995.
• Fage, J.D. (ed). The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 1979.
• Garlake, P. Early Art and Architecture of Africa. Oxford Paperbacks, 2019.
• Hrbek, I. (ed). UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. III, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1992.
• Huffman, T.N. "Debating Great Zimbabwe." The South African Archaeological Bulletin , Vol. 66, No. 193 (JUNE 2011), pp. 27-40.
• Innocent, P. "Great Zimbabwe in Historical Archaeology: Reconceptualizing Decline, Abandonment, and Reoccupation of an Ancient Polity, A.D. 1450-1900." Historical Archaeology , Vol. 47, No. 1, GLOBALIZATION, IMMIGRATION, TRANSFORMATION (2013), pp. 26-37.
• Ki-Zerbo, J. (ed). UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1998.
• McEvedy, C. The Penguin Atlas of African History. Penguin Books, 1996.
• Mokhtar, G. (ed). UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. II, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1990.
• Oliver, R. (ed). The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 1977.
• Oliver, R.A. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa. Cambridge University Press, 1981.
• Webber, N. "Great Zimbabwe." Scientific American , Vol. 277, No. 5 (NOVEMBER 1997), pp. 94-99.

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Great Zimbabwe

Aerial view of Great Zimbabwe’s Great Enclosure and adjacent ruins, looking southeast (photo: Janice Bell , CC BY-SA 4.0)

Great Zimbabwe and Harare (underlying map © Google)

Great Zimbabwe has been described as “one of the most dramatic architectural landscapes in sub-Saharan Africa.” [1] It is the largest stone complex in Africa built before the modern era, aside from the monumental architecture of ancient Egypt . The ruins that survive are a four-hour drive south of Zimbabwe’s present-day capital of Harare. It was constructed between the 11th and 15th centuries and was continuously inhabited by the Shona peoples until about 1450. But Great Zimbabwe was by no means a singular complex—at the site’s cultural zenith, it is estimated that seven comparable states existed in this region.

The word  zimbabwe  translates from the Bantu language of the Shona to either “judicial center” or “ruler’s court or house.” A few individual zimbabwes (houses) have survived exposure to the elements over the centuries. Within these clay structures, excavations have revealed interior furnishings such as pot-stands, elevated surfaces for sleeping and sitting, as well as hearths. Taken together, the settlement encompasses a cluster of approximately 250 royal houses built of clay, which in addition to other multi-story clay and thatch homes would have supported as many as 20,000 inhabitants—a exceptional scale for a sub-Saharan settlement at this time.

Plan of Great Zimbabwe showing the different constituent enclosures. Adapted from Chirikure & Pikirayi Shadreck Chirikure and Innocent Pikirayi, “Inside and outside the dry stone walls: Revisiting the material culture of Great Zimbabwe,” Antiquity 82 (December 2015), pp. 976–993.

The stone constructions of Great Zimbabwe can be categorized into roughly three areas: the Hill Ruin (or Hill Complex, on a rocky hilltop), the Great Enclosure, and the Valley Ruins (or Enclosures). The Hill Ruin dates to approximately 1250, and incorporates a cave that remains a sacred site for the Shona peoples today. The cave once accommodated the residence of the ruler and his immediate family. The Hill Ruin also held a structure surrounded by 30-foot high walls and flanked by cylindrical towers and monoliths carved with elaborate geometric patterns.

Between two walls, Great Enclosure, Great Zimbabwe (photo: Mandy , CC BY 2.0)

The Great Enclosure was completed in approximately 1450, and it too is a walled structure punctuated with turrets and monoliths, emulating the form of the earlier Hill Ruin. The massive outer wall is 32 feet high in some places. Inside the Great Enclosure, a smaller wall parallels the exterior wall creating a tight passageway leading to large towers. Because the Great Enclosure shares many structural similarities with the Hill Ruin, one interpretation suggests that the Great Enclosure was built to accommodate a surplus population and its religious and administrative activities. Another theory posits that the Great Enclosure may have functioned as a site for religious rituals.

The third section of Great Zimbabwe, the Valley Ruins, include a number of structures that offer evidence that the site served as a hub for commercial exchange and long distance trade. Archaeologists have found porcelain fragments originating from China, beads crafted in southeast Asia, and copper ingots from trading centers along the Zambezi River and from Central African kingdoms. [2]

A monolithic  soapstone sculpture of a seated bird resting on atop a register of zigzags was unearthed here. The pronounced muscularity of the bird’s breast and its defined talons suggest that this represents a bird of prey, and scholars have conjectured it could have been emblematic of the power of Shona kings as benefactors to their people and intercessors with their ancestors.

Conical Tower, Great Zimbabwe (photo: Mandy , CC BY 2.0)

Conical tower

All of the walls at Great Zimbabwe were constructed from granite hewn locally. While some theories suggest that the granite enclosures were built for defense, these walls likely had no military function. Many segments within the walls have gaps, interrupted arcs or elements that seem to run counter to needs of protection. The fact that the structures were built without the use of mortar to bind the stones together supports speculation that the site was not, in fact, intended for defense. Nevertheless, these enclosures symbolize the power and prestige of the rulers of Great Zimbabwe.

The conical tower of Great Zimbabwe is thought to have functioned as a granary. According to tradition, a Shona ruler shows his largess towards his subjects through his granary, often distributing grain as a symbol of his protection. Indeed, advancements in agricultural cultivation among Bantu-speaking peoples in sub-Saharan Africa transformed the pattern of life for many, including the Shona communities of present-day Zimbabwe.

Great Enclosure entrance (restored), Great Zimbabwe (photo: Mandy , CC BY 2.0)

Wealth and trade

Great Zimbabwe and port of Sofala (underlying map © Google)

Archaeological debris indicate that the economy of Great Zimbabwe relied on the management of livestock. In fact, cattle may have allowed the Shona peoples to move from subsistence agriculture to mining and trade. Iron tools have been found on site, along with copper, and gold wire jewelry and ornaments. Great Zimbabwe is thought to have prospered, perhaps indirectly, from gold that was mined 25 miles from the city and that was transported to the Indian Ocean port at Sofala where it made its way by dhow , up the coast, and by way of Kilwa Kisiwani , to the markets of Cairo.

By about 1500, however, Great Zimbabwe’s political and economic influence waned. Speculations as to why this occurred point to the frequency of droughts and environmental fragility, though other theories stress that Great Zimbabwe might have experienced political skirmishes over political succession that interrupted trade, still other theories hypothesize disease that may have afflicted livestock. [3]

Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) banknote featuring the conical tower at Great Zimbabwe, 1955 (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Great Zimbabwe stands as one of the most extensively developed centers in pre-colonial sub-Saharan Africa and stands as a testament to the organization, autonomy, and economic power of the Shona peoples. The site remains a potent symbol not only to the Shona, but for Zimbabweans more broadly. After gaining independence from the British, the nation formerly named after the British industrialist and imperialist, Cecil Rhodes, was renamed Zimbabwe.

[1] Webber Ndoro, The Preservation of Great Zimbabwe: Your Monument, Our Shrine (ICCROM, 2005), p. 16.

[2] Peter Garlake, Early Art and Architecture of Africa (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 153.

[3] Garlake, 157.

Additional resources

The Economist Magazine interactive.

Great Zimbabwe World Heritage Site (UNESCO).

Great Zimbabwe student worksheet (The British Museum).

Great Zimbabwe on the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.

Webber Ndoro, The Preservation of Great Zimbabwe: Your Monument, Our Shrine (ICCROM, 2005).

Thomas N. Huffman, “Debating Great Zimbabwe,” South African Archaeological Bulletin, 66 (2011), pp. 27–40.

Thomas N. Huffman, The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe, African Arts , 18 (May 1985), pp. 68–73.

P. Hubbard, “The Zimbabwe Birds: Interpretation and Symbolism,” Honeyguide: Journal of Birdlife Zimbabwe 55 (2009), pp. 109–116.

Great Zimbabwe from Scientific American.

“Lost cities # 9: racism and ruins – the plundering of Great Zimbabwe,” The Guardian (August 18, 2016).

Peter S. Garlake, Great Zimbabwe (Stein & Day Pub, 1973).

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Learning Objective

• Explain the social structure, unique aspects, and decline of Great Zimbabwe
• Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the southeastern hills of today’s Zimbabwe. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century.
• David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe.
• Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a center for trading, with a trade network linked to Kilwa Kisiwani and extending as far as China. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory. The rulers of Zimbabwe brought artistic and stone masonry traditions from Mapungubwe. The construction of elaborate stone buildings and walls reached its apex in the kingdom.
• Causes suggested for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the city of Great Zimbabwe have included a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability, and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change.
• In the early 11th century, people from the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in Southern Africa are believed to have settled on the Zimbabwe plateau. There, they would establish the Kingdom of Zimbabwe around 1220.
• Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe established his dynasty at Chitakochangonya Hill, and the land he conquered would become the Kingdom of Mutapa. Within a generation, Mutapa eclipsed Great Zimbabwe. By 1450, the capital and most of the kingdom had been abandoned.

Kingdom of Zimbabwe

A medieval (c. 1220–1450) kingdom located in modern-day Zimbabwe. Its capital, Great Zimbabwe, is the largest stone structure in precolonial Southern Africa.

Great Zimbabwe

A ruined city in the southeastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. It is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch. As such, it would have been used as the seat of political power.

A group of Bantu people in Zimbabwe and some neighboring countries. The main part of them is divided into five major clans and adjacent to some people of very similar culture and languages. They created empires and states on the Zimbabwe plateau. These states include the Kingdom of Zimbabwe (12th–16th century), the Torwa State, and the Munhumutapa states.

A pre-colonial state in Southern Africa located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, south of Great Zimbabwe. It was the first stage in a development that would culminate in the creation of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe in the 13th century and with gold trading links to Rhapta and Kilwa Kisiwani on the African east coast. It lasted about 80 years, and at its height its population was about 5,000 people.

Introduction

Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the southeastern hills of today’s Zimbabwe. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The exact identity of the Great Zimbabwe builders is at present unknown. Local traditions recorded in the 18th and 19th centuries assert that the stoneworks were constructed by the early Lemba. However, the most popular modern archaeological theory is that the edifices were erected by the ancestral Shona.

Origins and Growth

Construction of the stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures in Southern Africa; they are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa. The most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, makes it the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe. At its peak, estimates are that Great Zimbabwe had as many as 18,000 inhabitants. The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone, and they span 730 ha (1,800 acres).

Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a center for trading, with a trade network linked to Kilwa Kisiwani (the historic center of the Kilwa Sultanate; off the southern coast of present-day Tanzania in eastern Africa)and extending as far as China. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory. Some estimates indicate that more than 20 million ounces of gold were extracted from the ground. That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important. The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court. Archaeological evidence also suggests a high degree of social stratification, with poorer residents living outside of the city. Chinese pottery shards, coins from Arabia, glass beads, and other non-local items have been excavated. Despite these strong international trade links, there is no evidence to suggest exchange of architectural concepts between Great Zimbabwe and other centers such as Kilwa Kisiwani.

The Kingdom of Zimbabwe, of which Great Zimbabwe was the capital, existed between circa 1220 and 1450 in modern-day Zimbabwe. Although it was formally established during the medieval period, archaeological excavations suggest that state formation here was considerably more ancient. In the early 11th century, people from the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in Southern Africa are believed to have settled on the Zimbabwe plateau. There, they would establish the Kingdom of Zimbabwe around 1220. Sixteenth-century records left by the explorer João de Barros indicate that Great Zimbabwe appears to have still been inhabited as recently as the early 1500s.

The rulers of Zimbabwe brought artistic and stone masonry traditions from Mapungubwe. The construction of elaborate stone buildings and walls reached its apex in the kingdom. The kingdom taxed other rulers throughout the region. It was composed of over 150 tributaries headquartered in their own minor zimbabwes (stone structures). The Kingdom controlled the ivory and gold trade from the interior to the southeastern coast of Africa. Asian and Arabic goods could be found in abundance. The Great Zimbabwe people mined minerals like gold, copper, and iron. They also kept livestock.

Decline of the State and the City

Causes suggested for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the city of Great Zimbabwe have included a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability, and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change.Around 1430, prince Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe traveled north in search of salt among the Shona-Tavara. He defeated the Tonga and Tavara with his army and established his dynasty at Chitakochangonya Hill. The land he conquered would become the Kingdom of Mutapa. Within a generation, Mutapa eclipsed Great Zimbabwe as the economic and political power in Zimbabwe. By 1450, the capital and most of the kingdom had been abandoned.

The end of the kingdom resulted in a fragmentation of proto-Shona power. Two bases emerged along a north-south axis. In the north, the Kingdom of Mutapa carried on and even improved upon Zimbabwe’s administrative structure. It did not carry on the stone masonry tradition to the extent of its predecessor. In the south, the Kingdom of Butua was established as a smaller but nearly identical version of Zimbabwe. Both states were eventually absorbed into the largest and most powerful of the Kalanga states, the Rozwi Empire.

• Boundless World History. Authored by : Boundless. Located at : https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-textbook/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

January 1, 2005

10 min read

Great Zimbabwe

For centuries, this ancient Shona city stood at the hub of a vast trade network. The site has also been at the center of a bitter debate about African history and heritage

By Webber Ndoro

On the southern edge of the Zimbabwe plateau in the watershed between the Zambezi and the Limpopo rivers sits the largest and loveliest archaeological site in sub-Saharan Africa. With its high conical tower, its long, curved stone walls and its cosmopolitan artifacts, Great Zimbabwe attests to the existence of a thriving city that may have dominated trade and culture throughout southern Africa sometime between the 12th and 17th centuries. Its unique architecture and sculpture--particularly the enigmatic birds carved from soapstone--bespeak a rich history, one that archaeologists continue to piece together today. The country of Zimbabwe--formerly Rhodesia, until its independence from England in 1980--was named for this site.

Like many ancient cities, Great Zimbabwe has been shrouded by legend. In the 1500s Portuguese traders visiting Angola and Mozambique--where they established colonies--wrote of a kingdom in the interior of Africa. Their descriptions offered many Europeans the promise of King Solomons mines, for according to the Bible, Solomon would send to Ophir for his gold. In Paradise Lost , John Milton situates Ophir somewhere near the Congo and Angola. This powerful myth of the city of Ophir, populated by Semitic people, shaped the later cultural and historical interpretations of Great Zimbabwe. The fable is, in large part, the reason so many archaeological mysteries remain about the site. Because whereas the story of Great Zimbabwe is ultimately that of early Shona culture and the African Iron Age, it is also a tale of colonialism and of often shoddy, politically motivated archaeology.

Masterful Stonework CONSTRUCTED BETWEEN 1100 and 1600, Great Zimbabwe seems not to have been designed around a central plan but rather to have been altered to fit its changing role and population. Its scale is far larger than that of similar regional sites--including Danamombe, Khami and Naletale (in Zimbabwe), Domboshaba and Majande (in Botswana), Manikweni (in Mozambique) and Thulamela (in northern South Africa)--suggesting that Great Zimbabwe was the areas economic and political center. Because it is situated on the shortest route between the northern gold fields, where inland rivers were panned for the precious metal, and the Indian Ocean, the rulers of Great Zimbabwe most likely regulated the thriving medieval gold trade.

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Great Zimbabwe covers 1,779 acres, and the central area comprises three main built-up areas: the Hill Complex, the Great Enclosure and the smaller Valley Ruins. The Hill Complex, dubbed the Acropolis by Europeans, forms the oldest part of the site; evidence hints that farmers or hunters may have encamped there as early as the fifth century. From its position on the rocky, 262-foot-high hill, the Hill Complex's oval enclosure--about 328 feet long and 148 feet wide--would have allowed its inhabitants to see potential invaders. The outer wall, which stands nearly 37 feet high, would also have afforded good protection. Inside the walls, as inside all the other enclosures, stand daga houses, curved, hutlike structures made of Africas most common building material: dried earth, mud and gravel.

Below the Hill Complex sits the most stunning of Great Zimbabwes structures, the Great Enclosure, or Elliptical Building. Called Imbahuru , meaning "the house of the great woman" or "the great house," by the Karanga-speaking people who lived there during the 19th century, the Great Enclosure was built at the height of Great Zimbabwe's power. (Karanga is the most common dialect of Shona and is spoken by the inhabitants of south-central Zimbabwe.) The enclosing wall is 800 feet long and stands 32 feet high at some places; an estimated one million blocks were used in its construction. An inner wall runs along part of the outer wall, creating a narrow, 180-foot-long passageway.

The function of the Great Enclosure is not known, although it is thought to have served as a royal palace. Because of the presence of grooves in the walls (perhaps representing the female anatomy) and of phallic structures, some historians have postulated that the compound was used for adolescent initiation rites or for other important ceremonies. It may have also housed the many wives of the ruler. The great conical tower, which stands 30 feet high and is 18 feet in diameter at the base, appears not to have been used for any particular purpose and may have served a merely symbolic function.

In addition to the Hill Complex and the Great Enclosure, Great Zimbabwe is made up of the smaller Valley Ruins. This series of compounds stands in the valley between the two larger structures. The walls seem to be youngest here, suggesting that these structures were built as the population expanded and Great Zimbabwe needed more residential space.

Great Zimbabwe is unusual not only in its size but in its stonework. Many of the structures are made of rectangular blocks cut from nearby granite outcroppings. The city's name derives from the Shona term dzimbabwe , meaning "houses of stone." The blocks, set in layers without mortar, form stable free-standing, curved walls that are often about twice as high as they are wide. Although round, buttresslike structures rest along the base of many walls, they have no supportive role. Some archaeologists speculate that these curved extensions may have served to soften the approach to a doorway, or to have made passageways more complicated to navigate or perhaps even to have hidden rooms from direct view. They also may have served to control access to some areas, because people could have moved into the area in single file only.

The stonework is, in certain places, astonishingly sophisticated: rounded steps grace some of the entrances, and chevron designs decorate some of the walls. The walls are also punctuated by drains and occasionally by four-foot-wide doorways, some of which had wood lintels.

A Mysterious Culture OUR KNOWLEDGE of the people of Great Zimbabwe is complemented by what we know about the site of Mapungubwe, which appears to have been the center of Shona civilization around 1000. The largest Mapungubwe settlements, found in the Shashi-Limpopo area, are very similar to Great Zimbabwe. Wealth was apparently based on cattle production, ivory trade and gold. The Mapungubwe culture spread into western parts of Zimbabwe as the presence of Leopards Kopje pottery (in Mapungubwe style) attests. With the rise of Great Zimbabwe, it appears that trade shifted and Mapungubwe declined as an important center, becoming abandoned just as Great Zimbabwe prospered.

Artifacts unearthed at Great Zimbabwe have pointed to the social and cultural organization of the settlement, and they have distinguished it from other Iron Age sites. In particular, a group of soapstone birds, many of them 14 inches high and sitting atop three-foot-tall columns, is unlike any sculpture found elsewhere. Each bird has a different pattern or marking; none is identifiable as a local creature. Because of the regard contemporary Shona people hold for their dead and because some Shona tribes use iron rods to mark tallies of their dead, some archaeologists have speculated that the avian icons indicate aggregates of ancestors used in rituals.

Other artifacts indicate that Great Zimbabwe was well established as a trading community by the 14th century. Objects from distant lands made their way to Great Zimbabwe: Syrian glass, Chinese celadon dishes (mostly from the Ming Dynasty, 1368 to 1644), Persian faience bowls, coral, bronze bells and an iron spoon--a utensil not used by the Shona. There is no blue-and-white Chinese porcelain, which became widespread during the mid-15th century; its absence suggests that Great Zimbabwe's economic importance was less by that time. Indeed, it does appear that the site was largely empty by 1700.

There are several reasons Great Zimbabwe may have been abandoned. By the late 1600s the northern rivers had been panned clean, and the gold trade began to move west. No longer centrally located, the city may not have been able to thrive when revenue and trade dried up. Another possibility is that the population became unsustainable. By some estimates, Great Zimbabwe had between 10,000 and 17,000 residents at its peak--a population equivalent to that of medieval London. (Other estimates are more conservative, placing the populace at a maximum of 2,000.)

The area may have become devegetated as huge herds of cattle grazed it or as it was extensively farmed; recent environmental data suggest that a succession of severe droughts caused people to disperse. Or there may have been some other impetus, such as war, although there is no evidence besides minimal weaponry to support this argument. More archaeological clues, further digs at Great Zimbabwe and excavations at other Iron Age sites are needed to resolve the question of decline.

Plunder and Misappropriation LARGELY ABANDONED for 200 years or so, Great Zimbabwe was probably used only irregularly for religious ceremonies--as it is again today--until the late 1800s. It was then that Europeans arrived, lured by visions of gold from King Solomon's mines, and it was then that the archaeological record became so damaged as to become largely indecipherable.

A German explorer, Karl Mauch, was first to arrive, in 1871. He befriended another German, Adam Render, who was living in the tribe of Chief Pika, a Karanga leader, and who led him to Great Zimbabwe. (Had he known the outcome, Render, who was married to two tribeswomen and well integrated, might have steered Mauch into the Zambezi River.) On seeing the ruins, Mauch concluded very quickly that Great Zimbabwe, whether or not it was Ophir, was most certainly not the handiwork of Africans. The stonework was too sophisticated, the culture too advanced. It looked to Mauch to be the result of Phoenician or Israelite settlers. A sample of wood from a lintel bolstered Mauch's rapid assessment: it smelled like his pencil; therefore, it was cedar and must have come from Lebanon.

Mauch's visit was followed by one from Willi Posselt, a looter, who lugged off a carved soapstone bird and hid others so he could return for them later. Posselt was followed by a series of visitors, some of whom worked for W. G. Neal of the Ancient Ruins Company, which had been created in 1895. Cecil Rhodes, founder of the British South Africa Company, gave Neal a commission to exploit all Rhodesian ruins. Neal and his rogues pillaged Great Zimbabwe and other Iron Age sites, taking gold and everything of value, tearing down structures and throwing away whatever was not valuable to them (pottery shards, pots, clay figurines).

The first official archaeologist to visit the site, James Theodore Bent from Britain, had added to the confusion in 1891 by digging around the conical tower in the Great Enclosure--thereby completely destroying the stratigraphy and making it impossible for later archaeologists to make sense of its age. Bent also threw away clay and metal artifacts, including Persian and Arab trade beads, as insignificant. The archaeologist concluded that Great Zimbabwe had been built by a local bastard race--bastards because their fathers must have been white invaders from the north--because, as Rhodes and most European settlers maintained, native Africans could never have constructed Great Zimbabwe themselves.

A 1902 report written by Neal and a journalist named Richard N. Hall reiterated Bents conclusions: the architecture was clearly Phoenician or Arabian. This attitude was pervasive in colonialist Africa: the continent had no history, no sophistication; its people and tribes were unchanging, unable to develop, culturally barren.

Archaeologists who suggested otherwise were not well received. In 1905 David Randall-MacIver, an Egyptologist who had studied under the famous William Matthew Flinders Petrie, excavated at the site and uncovered artifacts very similar to the ones being used by Shona, or Karanga, people living in the vicinity. By turning to indigenous people for cultural clues and interpretation rather than just for labor, Randall-MacIver was indeed doing something unprecedented. Had any other investigators of the time drawn on the lore or knowledge of the local people, many of the questions about Great Zimbabwe might well have been answered.

The continuity of artifacts suggested to Randall-MacIver that the site had been built by people whose culture was similar. He also demonstrated that the Arab and Persian beads were no older than 14th or 15th century and thus did not date back to biblical times and King Solomon. And he argued that the stonework was not at all Arabic, because it was curved and not arranged in geometric or symmetric patterns. Randall-MacIver concluded that native Africans had built Great Zimbabwe.

Two subsequent researchers held the same opinion. In 1926 J. F. Schofield reiterated Randall-MacIvers conclusions, and in 1929 Gertrude Caton-Thompson did the same. Her excavations of the undisturbed Maund Ruin--which lies at the opposite end of the valley from the Great Enclosure--again supported the theory of indigenous construction. Caton-Thompsons detailed drawings and careful stratigraphy have been crucial in piecing together what little is known about Great Zimbabwe.

Despite the mounting evidence and archaeological testimony, most European settlers in Rhodesia rejected the record. From 1965 until independence in 1980, the Rhodesian Front censored all books and other materials available on Great Zimbabwe. This party, established by then prime minister Ian Smith to prevent Africans from gaining power, was based on a system of apartheid. Archaeologists, such as the noted Peter S. Garlake, who were vocal about the native origin of Great Zimbabwe were imprisoned and eventually deported. Africans who took the same view lost their jobs. Displays at the site itself were censored as well, although it hardly mattered because they were in English, and locals were not allowed to use the premises for any ceremonies.

Reclaiming the Past TODAY GREAT ZIMBABWE is a symbol of African cultural development. Popular books have made the monument somewhat more accessible to the people of Zimbabwe. Yet, at the same time, Great Zimbabwe remains largely inaccessible. Because of past archaeological mistakes, much of the history of the site is elusive. Given the condition of contemporary archaeology in southern Africa, there is little chance this will change soon.

The two archaeologists who are currently stationed at the site are responsible not only for the preservation of the decaying monument but for dealing with visitors and maintenance--and the 5,000 other sites that are under their jurisdiction as well (out of a total of 35,000 recorded sites in Zimbabwe). Although the ruins are protected by the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe and were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, only two conservators and fewer than 10 archaeologists are available in Zimbabwe to study and look after all the archaeological sites, including Great Zimbabwe.

The situation in other sub-Saharan countries is no better. According to Pierre de Maret of the Free University of Brussels, less than $150,000 is spent annually on archaeology in 10 sub-Saharan countries--and there are a mere 20 professional archaeologists among them. The sale of African objects abroad, however, reaches into the millions of dollars every year.

It is clear that cultural legacies are being lost as monuments decay and artifacts are taken out of the various countries. If contemporary cultures, fragmented and ruptured by centuries of colonialism, are going to be able to piece together and to reconnect with their severed past, archaeology will need to assume a more important place in African society. Great Zimbabwe is so important not simply because of its masterful masonry but because it is a cultural clue that survived and has been reclaimed. Now it needs to be fully interpreted and placed within the larger context of sub-Saharan history, a context that still lies hidden.

THE AUTHOR WEBBER NDORO is currently at ICCROM (the International Center for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property), where he is project manager for the Africa 2009 Program. He taught heritage management at the University of Zimbabwe. Ndoro holds degrees in archaeology from the University of Cambridge, architectural conservation from the York University in England and a Ph.D. in heritage management from Uppsala University in Sweden. He was conservator for the Great Zimbabwe World heritage site and coordinator of the Monuments Program from 1988 to 1994.

Great Zimbabwe History Overview: The Ancient Mystery in Southern Africa Essay

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A Brief Characteristic of Great Zimbabwe

Who built great zimbabwe, the function of the complexes, the reason to leave great zimbabwe.

Great Zimbabwe is considered to be an enormous wrecked town that is encircled with the wall made of stones. The ancient mystery is situated in the southern Africa. The wall around the Great Zimbabwe was built then the complex itself and has differences in style and techniques (Sayre, 2015, p. 390). The ancient complex holds a lot of secrets proving that the modern mankind with all the technical progress still does not know the real power of ancient people.

According to the translation of the word, ‘Zimbabwe’ means home or grave (Grimbly, 2013, p. 50). The Great Zimbabwe was the capital of the ancient empire Shona. Farmers settled down in the territory of the Great Zimbabwe in the 900 A. D. as there were perfect conditions to grow crops and have cattle (Grimbly, 2013, p. 50). The territory appeared to be one of the most significant trading points (Sayre, 2015, p. 390). Scientists have already developed some theories that explain what kind of society lived there, how they managed to erect such an impressive construction without the equipment, and why the site is abandoned now. Great Zimbabwe contributes to the cultural and historical context by providing the necessary information concerning the ancient epoch and people who erected such an impressive construction and how the architectural preferences changed overtime.

The walls are solid as their height is almost twice as big as the width. Due to the specific shape of stones they are easily connected. The great majority of the enigmatic construction is built of granite (Tucker, 2010, p. 100). According to Credo Mutwa, Great Zimbabwe was created by the multicultural and globalized society that was ruled by powerful kings, usually referred as the Lords of the World (Tucker, 2010, p. 100).

According to Tudor Parfitt, a lot of African tribes are sure that their ancestors built Great Zimbabwe; however, the Lemba tribe is viewed as those who actually could build the massive construction (Moyo, 2015, p. 14). The scholars have found the evidence that support such theory. The Lemba were traders they could have been responsible for building Great Zimbabwe as the inhabitants of Great Zimbabwe were talented traders. The African civilization was powerful and consisted of thousands of tribes; Great Zimbabwe is seen as the heart of the ancient African tribes (Moyo, 2015, p. 14).

Political and religious beliefs of the ancient people influenced the way Great Zimbabwe was built. The building comprises three major parts, namely Hill Complex, the Valley Complex, and the Great Enclosure (Tucker, 2010, p. 101). The scientists cannot find a common sense concerning the purpose of the architectural complexes. According to one of the most widespread theory, such groupings were erected for different kings that took the power. However, there is also an idea that such complexes were built to satisfy the needs of the society, as the Hill Complex resembles a temple, the Valley is believed to be the residence for the citizens, and the Great Enclosure could serve the needs of the king. This theory is reasonable, as the ancient society was highly developed and had all the features of the progressive community.

The reasons for people to leave the massive complex are considered to be the following: the lack of water sources, climate changes, and political issues. All the stated above reasons seem to be relevant, as climate conditions and political situation within the society could influence people in a significant way and force them to leave the territory.

In conclusion, it should be stated that all the secrets of the ancient enigma probably will never be discovered. The mystery around the site seems to be difficult for understanding. It should be stressed, that ancient people had way more developed skills and abilities than modern people think they did, as Great Zimbabwe will keep its history unknown forever.

Grimbly, S. (2013). Encyclopedia of the ancient world . London, U.K.: Routledge.

Moyo, F. (2015). The Bible, the bullet, and the ballot: Zimbabwe: The impact of Christian protest in socio-political transformation, ca. 1900-ca. 2000 . Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications.

Sayre, H. (2015). The humanities: Culture, continuity & change (3d ed., vol. 1). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Tucker, L. (2010). Mystery of the white lions: Children of the sun god . Carlsbad, CA: Hay House.

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7d. Great Zimbabwe

The House of Rock.

It's not the name of a dance club or a new band. It's actually a translation of the Shona word, "Zimbabwe." Though not the best illustration of the modern African nation, this phrase is a perfect description of the ancient city within its borders known as Great Zimbabwe. Sixty acres of immense stone ruins comprise the city and tell the story of the people who created and resided in it some 900 years ago.

For a long time, many Westerners argued that such amazing structures could not have been crafted in Africa without European influence or assistance. These notions reflect ethnocentrism, or the tendency to view one's own culture as the best and others as inferior. With the help of modern dating techniques, today's archaeologists have been able to disprove these arguments and expose the truth. Africans, and Africans alone, were responsible for building this astounding and complex city.

Shona Settlement

The first inhabitants of Great Zimbabwe were Shona-speaking peoples who likely settled in the region as early as 400 C.E. Back then, the land was full of possibilities: plains of fertile soil to support farming and herding, and mineral rich territories to provide gold, iron, copper, and tin for trading and crafting. It was fine place for the Shona to call home.

Over the years, descendants of the Shona made transitions from simple farming communities to more complex, stratified societies. By 1000 C.E., the population of Great Zimbabwe was divided and ranked by status — from elite leaders and their cattle to the peasants who did all the work. Cattle were very desirable and actually more valuable than most of the workers.

Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous

In response to the changing social, political, and economic landscape, new buildings were gradually built. Tremendous stone houses were constructed by the peasants for their kings. Sophisticated workplaces were designed for conducting trades such as blacksmithing.

The buildings were made of heavy granite blocks, stacked tightly together. Stones were arranged carefully, and no mortar was used to seal them together. The largest and most impressive building was an elliptical structure known today as the Great or Western Enclosure. The remains of its outer wall measure over 800 feet long and up to 32 feet high. The wall enclosed several huts and a tall, cone-shaped tower. Archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the enclosure was the city's center and was occupied only by the elite. It was the dividing line between the rich and the rest.

Several clues led to this theory. First, remnants of exotic items from overseas were found within the enclosure. Second, no evidence of cooking was found within the walled area. Most likely, this means that food was prepared elsewhere by servants and delivered to the wealthy inhabitants upon demand. And third, evidence of only 100-200 residents is shown, while many thousands occupied the city.

Where did everyone else live? They lived in mud huts surrounding the enclosure. Although the huts were not quite as glamorous as the granite "palaces," they were well constructed.

Long Live Rock

By 1200 C.E., the city had grown strong, and was well known as an important religious and trading center. Some believe that religion triggered the city's rise to power, and that the tall tower was used for worship. The people of Great Zimbabwe most likely worshipped Mwari, the supreme god in the Shona religion.

Discoveries of Chinese porcelain, engraved glass from the Middle East, and metal ornaments from West Africa provide evidence that Great Zimbabwe participated in a comprehensive trade network during the 13th and 14th centuries. Gold was probably its chief export and East African cities — especially those along the coast that had overseas connections — were most likely its primary trading partners.

Zimbabwe's prosperity continued until the mid-15th century. At this time, the city's trade activity declined and the people began to migrate elsewhere. The exact cause of the evacuation remains a puzzle, but many scientists agree that a decline in soil quality and fertility was probably a major factor. The Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe has declined, but the House of Rock still stands.

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Great Zimbabwe, 1100–1600 AD, Rise, Development, and Demise of

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• First Online: 26 October 2020
• pp 4696–4709
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• Innocent Pikirayi 2  

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State of Knowledge and Current Debates

Introduction.

Since the monumental architecture of Great Zimbabwe and sites related to it became known to Westerners in the sixteenth century, the scope and grandeur of the site has never ceased to amaze observers. From the days of the earliest Portuguese travelers’ narratives, speculation about the site has been continuous and inventive. Since serious scholarly interest started in the late nineteenth century, debate on the origins, development, and decline of the culture once based there and later elsewhere has never stopped. With increased archaeological research throughout the twentieth century, and at the beginning of the twenty-first century, it has become even more complex. From the viewpoint of heritage, Great Zimbabwe is testimony to a major civilization that existed in Southern Africa between the eleventh and seventeenth centuries. The settlement, whose remains cover some 700 hectares, was an important trading center, connected to the...

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Pikirayi, I. (2020). Great Zimbabwe, 1100–1600 AD, Rise, Development, and Demise of. In: Smith, C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_2666

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Unesco social media, great zimbabwe national monument.

• Description

The ruins of Great Zimbabwe – the capital of the Queen of Sheba, according to an age-old legend – are a unique testimony to the Bantu civilization of the Shona between the 11th and 15th centuries. The city, which covers an area of nearly 80 ha, was an important trading centre and was renowned from the Middle Ages onwards.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Monument national du Grand Zimbabwe

Les ruines du Grand Zimbabwe, qui, selon une légende séculaire, aurait été la capitale de la reine de Saba, sont un témoignage unique de la civilisation bantoue des Shona entre le XI e et le XV e siècle. La ville, d'une superficie de près de 80 ha fut un centre d'échanges important, renommé dès le Moyen Âge.

نصب زيمبابوي الكبرى الوطني

تشكل انقاض زيمبابوي الكبرى التي كانت بحسب إحدى الأساطير العلمانية عاصمة ملكة سبأ شاهداً فريداً على حضارة البانتو الخاصة بقبائل شونا بين القرنين الحادي عشر والخامس عشر. وأصبحت المدينة الممتدة على مساحة تقارب 80 هكتاراً مركزاً هاماً للتبادل ذاعت شهرته منذ القرون الوسطى.

source: UNESCO/CPE Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

据一个古老的传说，大津巴布韦遗址是希巴皇后的首府，同时还是11世纪到15世纪期间绍纳城班图文明唯一的见证。这座城市面积将近80公顷，曾经是一个重要的贸易中心，自中世纪以来闻名于世。

Monumento nacional del Gran Zimbabwe

Las ruinas del Gran Zimbabwe –capital de la reina de Saba, según una vieja leyenda– son un testimonio excepcional de lo que fue la civilización bantú de los shona entre los siglos XI y XV. La ciudad, que abarcaba una superficie de unas 80 hectáreas, fue un importante centro de intercambios comerciales, muy conocido desde la Edad Media.

大ジンバブエ国立記念物

source: NFUAJ

Nationaal monument Groot Zimbabwe

Het Nationaal monument Groot Zimbabwe ligt op 30 km van Masvingo (voorheen Fort Victoria). Het gebied strekt zich uit over bijna 800 hectare en is verdeeld in de Hill ruins (heuvelruïnes), Great Enclosure (grote omheining) en de Valley ruins (valleiruïnes). De indrukwekkende ruïnes getuigen op een unieke manier van de Bantoebeschaving van de Shona zoals die was tussen de 11e en 15e eeuw. Volgens een eeuwenoude legende is Groot-Zimbabwe de hoofdstad van de koningin van Sheba. De stad - met een oppervlakte van bijna 80 hectare - was een belangrijk handelscentrum en gerenommeerd sinds de Middeleeuwen en daarna.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value

Brief synthesis

Great Zimbabwe National Monument is approximately 30 km from Masvingo and located in the lowveld at an altitude of some 1100 m in a sparsely populated region of the Bantu/Shona people. The property, built between 1100 and 1450 AD, extends over almost 800 ha and is divided into three groups: the Hill Ruins, the Great Enclosure and the Valley Ruins.

The Hill Ruins, forming a huge granite mass atop a spur facing north-east/south-west, were continuously inhabited from the 11th to 15th centuries, and there are numerous layers of traces of human settlements. Rough granite rubble-stone blocks form distinct enclosures, accessed by narrow, partly covered, passageways. This acropolis is generally considered a 'royal city'; the west enclosure is thought to have been the residence of successive chiefs and the east enclosure, where six steatite upright posts topped with birds were found, considered to serve a ritual purpose.

The Great Enclosure, which has the form of an ellipsis, is located to the south of the hills and dates to the 14th century. It was built of cut granite blocks, laid in regular courses, and contains a series of daga-hut living quarters, a community area, and a narrow passage leading to a high conical tower. The bricks (daga) were made from a mixture of granitic sand and clay. Huts were built within the stone enclosure walls; inside each community area other walls mark off each family's area, generally comprising a kitchen, two living huts and a court.

The Valley Ruins are a series of living ensembles scattered throughout the valley which date to the 19th century. Each ensemble has similar characteristics: many constructions are in brick (huts, indoor flooring and benches, holders for recipients, basins, etc.) and dry stone masonry walls provide insulation for each ensemble. Resembling later developments of the Stone Age, the building work was carried out to a high standard of craftsmanship, incorporating an impressive display of chevron and chequered wall decorations.

Scientific research has proved that Great Zimbabwe was founded in the 11th century on a site which had been sparsely inhabited in the prehistoric period, by a Bantu population of the Iron Age, the Shona. In the 14th century, it was the principal city of a major state extending over the gold-rich plateaux; its population exceeded 10,000 inhabitants. About 1450, the capital was abandoned because the hinterland could no longer furnish food for the overpopulated city and because of deforestation. The resulting migration benefited Khami, which became the most influential city in the region, but signaled waning political power. When in 1505 the Portuguese settled in Sofala, the region was divided between the rival powers of the kingdoms of Torwa and Mwene-Mutapa.

Archaeological excavations have revealed glass beads and porcelain from China and Persia, and gold and Arab coins from Kilwa which testify to the extent of long-standing trade with the outer world. Other evidence, including potsherds and ironware, gives a further insight to the property’s socio-economic complexity and about farming and pastoral activities. A monumental granite cross, located at a traditionally revered and sacred spiritual site, also illustrates community contact with missionaries.

Criterion (i): A unique artistic achievement, this great city has struck the imagination of African and European travellers since the Middle Ages, as evidenced by the persistent legends which attribute to it a Biblical origin.

Criterion (iii): The ruins of Great Zimbabwe bear a unique testimony to the lost civilisation of the Shona between the 11th and 15th centuries.

Criterion (vi): The entire Zimbabwe nation has identified with this historically symbolic ensemble and has adopted as its emblem the steatite bird, which may have been a royal totem.

The property, extending to almost 800 ha, is considered relatively intact and of an appropriate size to maintain the diverse cultural needs, functions and interactions of the traditional and urban communities in an ongoing process. The boundaries and buffer zone have been delineated and are of sufficient size to contain the natural and aesthetic attributes of the property. It is well protected from modern environmental pressures and alternative land uses by surrounding cultural and traditional barriers, and by the traditional communities themselves.

The natural environment within and around the Great Zimbabwe Estate is important for the survival of the archaeological remains and the understanding of the relationship between the built environment and its setting. Measures need to be continued so that this important attribute continues to be protected. The natural fauna has to a large extent been eliminated by poaching and other means. Although the flora is not much different from the surrounding areas, it needs to be kept under control, particularly from the invasive lantana camara .

Authenticity

The authenticity of the property is unquestionable, particularly the fossil localities which need to remain undisturbed. It is a non-functional sacred archaeological site that is still being used by contemporary communities for spiritual reasons.

The method of construction is unique in African architecture and, although they are examples of similar work elsewhere, none are as distinguished and imposing as Great Zimbabwe. It is an edifice which emulates that of the prehistoric people and is unquestionably of Bantu origin. The Shona word Zimbabwe means the house in stone. The divine soapstone figurines, the Zimbabwe Birds, found within the ruins are testimony to the use of the site as place of worship spanning from the ancient past to the present day.

Decay phenomena have occurred due to variations in temperature, soil moisture content, and tourism pressure, encroaching invasive vegetation and improper preservation methods. All of these factors need to be controlled through a sustained conservation and maintenance plan to maintain the conditions of authenticity. Particular attention needs to be put on the conservation techniques and materials employed as well as on the application of conservation standards that meet international requirements but are balanced with traditional uses at the property. Provisions should also be made to accommodate rituals and practices that substantiate the associative values of the property.

Protection and management requirements

The site has been legally protected since 1893 and is currently protected under the National Museum & Monuments Act Chapter 25:11 (1976) which provides for the legal protection of the resources within the property.

The National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ), under the Ministry of Home Affairs, is the entity directly responsible for the management of the property. Funding for the management and conservation of the property comes mainly from the central government with limited income generated by entrance fees, accommodation and sale of publications which are used to finance projects at the national level at the discretion of the NMMZ Board of Trustees.

Although there are management arrangements for the property, an updated and integrated Management Plan is critical to ensure the long term conservation of the property and address existing factors mainly potential encroachments, impacts from unplanned or inappropriate tourism development and public use. Adequate financial resources need to be provided to ensure the sustained implementation of conservation, maintenance and monitoring activities and skilled staff needs to exist to mitigate the progressive deterioration of the historic fabric. The Management Plan should also emphasize the implementation of programmes to enhance community participation and promote the continuation of the religious functions of the site.

The Nomination files produced by the States Parties are published by the World Heritage Centre at its website and/or in working documents in order to ensure transparency, access to information and to facilitate the preparations of comparative analysis by other nominating States Parties.

The sole responsibility for the content of each Nomination file lies with the State Party concerned. The publication of the Nomination file, including the maps and names, does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever of the World Heritage Committee or of the Secretariat of UNESCO concerning the history or legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its boundaries.

State of Conservation (SOC)

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Great Zimbabwe National Monument - Zimbabwe

Website Category : Ancient sub-Saharan Civilisations

  Area : 7.2 km 2  

Inscribed : 1986

Criteria : (i)  a creative masterpiece (iii)  cultural tradition (vi)  association with belief system

Location and Values :  Great Zimbabwe is undoubtedly one of Africa’s most impressive monuments.  In its hey-day, from about 1300 to 1450, it was the capital of a major trading empire, with a population of about 10,000, centred on the gold-rich plateau of central southern Africa. Trade was closely associated with the Swahili-Arab port of Kilwa on the Tanzanian coast, and a 14 th century coin from there has been found.  

Located near the modern town of Masvingo in south-central Zimbabwe, the ruins of this great city state are in a remarkably good state of preservation.  There are huge granite dry-stone walls, built with immense skill, linking massive granite boulders that are integrated into some of the structures.  The whole site extends over an area of about 80 hectares and includes three main ruins:  a hill-top acropolis regarded as a ‘royal city’ where six steatite ‘totem’ birds were found (the bird has been adopted as a national emblem by the modern Zimbabwe state); a Great Enclosure built of cut granite blocks, which served as a kind of fortified town protecting the homesteads within; and a series of living ensembles in the valley outside the main enclosure.

Slideshow of the Great Zimbabwe National Monument:   This short slideshow features some rather old photos of the site, taken in 1982. They show the immense granite walls of the Great Enclosure, the quality of the work that went into the dry-stone construction, and features of the royal city, including a photo of one of the steatite Zimbabwe totem birds.  Finally, there are a couple of distant photos of the entire valley ruins, with the Great Enclosure, as viewed from the royal city.

Slideshow of the Great Zimbabwe National Monument:

Google Earth View :  To view satellite imagery of Great Zimbabwe National Monument on Google Earth,  click here . This opens a new window, so when you are finished, just close the Google Earth page and you will be straight back here to continue browsing. You can learn an enormous amount from this kind of ‘bird’s eye view’, so take a few minutes to explore different parts of the ruins by panning around.

Links to other places featuring ancient sub-Saharan civilisations:  Abomey   I  Loropeni  I  Lope-Okanda   I  Asante Buildings   I  Askia  I  Kasubi Tombs   I  Khami Ruins   I   Mbanza Kongo  

Other Links :     Official UNESCO Site Details

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The demise of Great Zimbabwe, AD 1420–1550: an environmental re-appraisal

2006, Cities in the World

The decline of Great Zimbabwe is poorly known due to limited archaeological data and vague historical sources. Environmental data indicates that Great Zimbabwe declined when climatic conditions were favourable, which may have prompted the ruling elite to make decisions that impacted on the immediate surroundings of the settlement and beyond. The shifting character of the Zimbabwe Culture1 since the 12th century was a human response to the vagaries of the savanna environment, as well as the changing patterns of trade in ...

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The Great Zimbabwe, a stone monument which represented the most remarkable archaeological site in the sub-Saharan region, was thought to be built over a long period of time between the years 1200 and 1450. Over the course of the last century, various archaeologists have conducted extensive field work in this area and published a series of reports. But since the city has been abandoned and there are no written records thereof, the information is largely limited. On the basis of the archaeological evidence currently available, this essay seeks to provide a detailed overview of the society in Great Zimbabwe in terms of its social and political structures and religious beliefs. And we will be able to see that these ideological aspects are heavily associated with what the archaeological remains revealed.

Munyaradzi Manyanga

Foreman Bandama

Innocent Pikirayi

Some Portuguese written sources referring to southern Zambezia – the region dominated by the Zambezi River – describe capitals of the Mutapa State variously as " …of stone and clay and very large…. " or composed of " …many houses of wood and straw ". In one of the towns, the residence of the king is described as " …a very large place, whence the merchants take to Sofala gold which they give to the Moors without weighing for coloured cloths and beads which among them are most valued… " (Theal, 1898-1903, vol. 1, 95-6). It is evident from both archaeological and available written sources that although population aggregation continued in northern Zimbabwe in towns akin to the extant Great Zimbabwe, the gradual disappearance of 'elite' stone-walled palaces signified the demise of the much earlier classical city. Socio-political complexity continued in different forms, however, with functional and other specialization taking place within villages contiguous to and beyond palaces.

Mshengu Kavanagh

In my research for a book on the Pre-Colonial history of Africa, I noticed what I had long suspected - a certain reluctance on the part of historians to account for the ancient people in Zimbabwe, South Africa, Malawi and Mozambique who built in stone. One of the largest and best preserved examples is in Zimbabwe. It is called Great Zimbabwe. With this book, Great Zimbabwe: Who Built It and Why, Nyamutswa contends that in order to understand Great Zimbabwe and the other stone buildings in the region, what must demonstrated is how the features of the site and in particular the artefacts found at the site corroborate the theory. No-one has been able to do this so far. Nyamutswa believes that this is precisely what he has done in his book, Great Zimbabwe: Who Built It and Why.

Seke Katsamudanga

There is always a symbiotic relationship between the physical environment and cultural behaviour of a society. The physical environment provides resources and options for subsistence, raw materials for economic development, landforms and landscapes that may later be imbued with iconic, associative, symbolic or religious values. Understanding the environmental conditions in particular cultural landscapes at particular periods may explain aspects of cultural behaviour of communities, especially settlement locations. This research is an investigation of the nature of the prehistoric culture-environment relationship in Zimunya, in the central part of the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe. The eastern highlands form a distinct physiographic region of Zimbabwe, and should have required or led to particular technological and cultural adaptations of the prehistoric communities that lived in it throughout the ages. The results of this investigation show that there are patterns in the distributio...

Shadreck Chirikure , Foreman Bandama , Munyaradzi Manyanga

The World Heritage Site of Great Zimbabwe is one of the most iconic and largest archaeological settlements in Africa. It was the hub of direct and indirect trade which internally connected various areas of southern Africa, and externally linked them with East Africa and the Near and Far East. Archaeologists believe that at its peak, Great Zimbabwe had a fully urban population of 20,000 people concentrated in approximately 2.9 square kilometres (40 percent of 720 ha). This translates to a population density of 6,897, which is comparable with that of some of the most populous regions of the world in the 21 st century. Here, we combine archaeological, ethnographic and historical evidence with ecological and statistical modelling to demonstrate that the total population estimate for the site's nearly 800-year occupational duration (CE1000–1800), after factoring in generational succession, is unlikely to have exceeded 10,000 people. This conclusion is strongly firmed up by the absence of megamiddens at the site, the chronological differences between several key areas of the settlement traditionally assumed to be coeval, and the historically documented low populations recorded for the sub-continent between CE1600 and 1950.

Tom Huffman

Nyame Akuma 64: 72-77

Gary Haynes

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Visiting Sleeping Beauties: Reawakening Fashion?

You must join the virtual exhibition queue when you arrive. If capacity has been reached for the day, the queue will close early.

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Mapungubwe (ca. 1050–1270).

Alice Apley Independent Scholar

October 2001; updated December 2017

The Golden Rhinoceros The discovery of gold in stone ruins north of the Limpopo River in the 1890s attracted prospectors and treasure hunters to the Limpopo River valley. The ruins of Mapungubwe were uncovered in 1932. Subsequent excavations revealed a court sheltered in a natural amphitheater at the bottom of the hill, and an elite graveyard at the top—with a spectacular view of the region. Twenty-three graves have been excavated from this hilltop site. The bodies in three of these graves were buried in the upright seated position associated with royalty, with a variety of gold and copper items, exotic glass beads, and other prestigious objects. These finds provide evidence not only of the early smithing of gold in southern Africa but of the extensive wealth and social differentiation of the people of Mapungubwe. Most spectacular among these finds is a gold foil rhinoceros molded over what was likely a soft core of sculpted wood.

Trade Links to the North Located at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers, the community settled at K2 close to Bambandyanalo Hill during the eleventh century but had expanded to nearby Mapungubwe Hill by 1220. Mapungubwe flourished as a city and trading center from 1220 to 1290/1300. Considered by some as the capital of southern Africa’s first state, Mapungubwe may have reached a population of 5,000. The city grew in part because of its access to the Limpopo River, which connected the region through trade to the ports of Kilwa and other sites along the Indian Ocean. This new trade was grafted onto existing regional networks along which salt, cattle, fish, metals, chert, ostrich-eggshell beads, and other items had been flowing for centuries. New prestige items, including glass beads and cloth, were introduced through the Swahili trade and were likely exchanged for gold, ivory, and other locally produced goods.

Social Differentiation Mapungubwe is the earliest known site in southern Africa where the leaders were spatially separated from their followers, reflecting the evolution of a class-based society. The homes, diet, and elaborate burials of the wealthy and privileged elite, contrast to those of the commoners , who lived at the foot of Mapungubwe and the surrounding plateau. The settlement at Mapungubwe reflects the earliest evidence of what was a very uneven but significant set of economic and social transformations notable in several sites in the region. The distinctive stone wall architecture, a symbolic expression of differential status, was carried out to its fullest extent at Great Zimbabwe .

The Decline of Mapungubwe Mapungubwe was short-lived as a capital, thriving only from 1290 to 1300. Its decline was linked to radical climatic changes that saw the area become colder and drier. At the time of Mapungubwe’s decline, Great Zimbabwe began to grow in importance.

Mapungubwe was designated a World Heritage Site in 2003 and is now incorporated into Mapungubwe National Park. The majority of artifacts excavated at the site are housed in Mapungubwe Museum at the University of Pretoria.

Apley, Alice. “Mapungubwe (ca. 1050–1270).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mapu/hd_mapu.htm (October 2001)

Additional Essays by Alice Apley

• Apley, Alice. “ Ife Terracottas (1000–1400 A.D.) .” (October 2001)
• Apley, Alice. “ Igbo-Ukwu (ca. 9th Century) .” (October 2001)
• Apley, Alice. “ African Lost-Wax Casting .” (October 2001)

Related Essays

• Great Zimbabwe (11th–15th Century)
• African Rock Art
• African Rock Art of the Central Zone
• Eastern and Southern Africa, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Eastern and Southern Africa, 500–1000 A.D.
• Late Iron Age Sites in Zimbabwe
• 11th Century A.D.
• 12th Century A.D.
• 13th Century A.D.
• Aquatic Animal
• Archaeology
• Flint / Chert
• Funerary Art
• Southern Africa

Ch. 11 African Civilizations

Great zimbabwe, learning objective.

• Explain the social structure, unique aspects, and decline of Great Zimbabwe
• Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the southeastern hills of today’s Zimbabwe. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century.
• David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe.
• Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a center for trading, with a trade network linked to Kilwa Kisiwani and extending as far as China. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory. The rulers of Zimbabwe brought artistic and stone masonry traditions from Mapungubwe. The construction of elaborate stone buildings and walls reached its apex in the kingdom.
• Causes suggested for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the city of Great Zimbabwe have included a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability, and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change.
• In the early 11th century, people from the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in Southern Africa are believed to have settled on the Zimbabwe plateau. There, they would establish the Kingdom of Zimbabwe around 1220.
• Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe established his dynasty at Chitakochangonya Hill, and the land he conquered would become the Kingdom of Mutapa. Within a generation, Mutapa eclipsed Great Zimbabwe. By 1450, the capital and most of the kingdom had been abandoned.

Kingdom of Zimbabwe

A medieval (c. 1220–1450) kingdom located in modern-day Zimbabwe. Its capital, Great Zimbabwe, is the largest stone structure in precolonial Southern Africa.

A ruined city in the southeastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. It is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch. As such, it would have been used as the seat of political power.

A group of Bantu people in Zimbabwe and some neighboring countries. The main part of them is divided into five major clans and adjacent to some people of very similar culture and languages. They created empires and states on the Zimbabwe plateau. These states include the Kingdom of Zimbabwe (12th–16th century), the Torwa State, and the Munhumutapa states.

A pre-colonial state in Southern Africa located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, south of Great Zimbabwe. It was the first stage in a development that would culminate in the creation of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe in the 13th century and with gold trading links to Rhapta and Kilwa Kisiwani on the African east coast. It lasted about 80 years, and at its height its population was about 5,000 people.

Introduction

Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the southeastern hills of today’s Zimbabwe. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The exact identity of the Great Zimbabwe builders is at present unknown. Local traditions recorded in the 18th and 19th centuries assert that the stoneworks were constructed by the early Lemba. However, the most popular modern archaeological theory is that the edifices were erected by the ancestral Shona.

Origins and Growth

Construction of the stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures in Southern Africa; they are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa. The most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, makes it the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe. At its peak, estimates are that Great Zimbabwe had as many as 18,000 inhabitants. The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone, and they span 730 ha (1,800 acres).

Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a center for trading, with a trade network linked to Kilwa Kisiwani (the historic center of the Kilwa Sultanate; off the southern coast of present-day Tanzania in eastern Africa)and extending as far as China. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory. Some estimates indicate that more than 20 million ounces of gold were extracted from the ground. That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important. The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court. Archaeological evidence also suggests a high degree of social stratification, with poorer residents living outside of the city. Chinese pottery shards, coins from Arabia, glass beads, and other non-local items have been excavated. Despite these strong international trade links, there is no evidence to suggest exchange of architectural concepts between Great Zimbabwe and other centers such as Kilwa Kisiwani.

A tower of Great Zimbabwe Great Zimbabwe is notable for its advanced masonry techniques. The ruins form three distinct architectural groups. They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure. The Hill Complex is the oldest, and was occupied from the 9th to 13th centuries. The Great Enclosure was occupied from the 13th to 15th centuries, and the Valley Complex from the 14th to 16th centuries.

The Kingdom of Zimbabwe, of which Great Zimbabwe was the capital, existed between circa 1220 and 1450 in modern-day Zimbabwe. Although it was formally established during the medieval period, archaeological excavations suggest that state formation here was considerably more ancient. In the early 11th century, people from the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in Southern Africa are believed to have settled on the Zimbabwe plateau. There, they would establish the Kingdom of Zimbabwe around 1220. Sixteenth-century records left by the explorer João de Barros indicate that Great Zimbabwe appears to have still been inhabited as recently as the early 1500s.

The rulers of Zimbabwe brought artistic and stone masonry traditions from Mapungubwe. The construction of elaborate stone buildings and walls reached its apex in the kingdom. The kingdom taxed other rulers throughout the region. It was composed of over 150 tributaries headquartered in their own minor zimbabwes (stone structures). The Kingdom controlled the ivory and gold trade from the interior to the southeastern coast of Africa. Asian and Arabic goods could be found in abundance. The Great Zimbabwe people mined minerals like gold, copper, and iron. They also kept livestock.

Decline of the State and the City

Causes suggested for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the city of Great Zimbabwe have included a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability, and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change.Around 1430, prince Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe traveled north in search of salt among the Shona-Tavara. He defeated the Tonga and Tavara with his army and established his dynasty at Chitakochangonya Hill. The land he conquered would become the Kingdom of Mutapa. Within a generation, Mutapa eclipsed Great Zimbabwe as the economic and political power in Zimbabwe. By 1450, the capital and most of the kingdom had been abandoned.

The end of the kingdom resulted in a fragmentation of proto-Shona power. Two bases emerged along a north-south axis. In the north, the Kingdom of Mutapa carried on and even improved upon Zimbabwe’s administrative structure. It did not carry on the stone masonry tradition to the extent of its predecessor. In the south, the Kingdom of Butua was established as a smaller but nearly identical version of Zimbabwe. Both states were eventually absorbed into the largest and most powerful of the Kalanga states, the Rozwi Empire.

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