assignment english grammar

• Phrases and Clauses
• Parts of a Sentence
• Modal Verbs
• Relative Clauses
• Confusing Words
• Online Grammar Quizzes
• Printable Grammar Worksheets
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• Grammar Blog

Free English Grammar Worksheets

These free English Grammar Worksheets or practice sheets are an excellent way to improve your grammar. 

You can  download  and  print them off  as PDFs so they are excellent grammar resources for the classroom if you are a teacher. 

All the worksheets can be accessed through the links below and they are all  with answers . They are also available as interactive  online grammar quizzes .

Printable English Grammar Worksheets (With Answers)

Adverbial clauses.

• Adverbs of Concession and Manner
• Adverbs of Cause and Reasons
• Adverbs of Time
• Adverbs of Condition

Conditional Clauses

• The Zero Conditional  
• Type 1 Conditional Clauses
• Type 2 Conditional Clauses
• Type 3 Conditional Clauses
• Mixed Type Conditionals
• Mixed Exercises (Part 1)
• Mixed Exercises (Part 2)
• Intermediate Worksheets 1  
• Intermediate Worksheets 2
• Intermediate Worksheets 3
• Intermediate Worksheets 4
• Advanced Worksheets 1
• Advanced Worksheets 2
• Advanced Worksheets 3
• Advanced Worksheets 4
• Defining and Non-defining

Present Simple

• Mixed Forms
• Affirmative
• Interrogative (Yes / No Questions)
• Interrogative (Question Words)
• More exercises
• Worksheets from the Web

Present Perfect Simple

Present perfect continuous, past simple.

• Affirmative (Regular Verbs)
• Affirmative (Irregular Verbs)

Past Continuous

• Uses of the Past Continuous

Past Perfect

• Interrogative (Questions Words)

Past Perfect Continuous

Future simple.

• Affirmative ('will' & 'be going to')

Future Perfect Simple

Future perfect continuous.

• Interrogative

Sentence Structure 

• Identifying Phrases and Clauses
• Identifying Clauses  
• Identifying the 8 Parts of Speech
• Converting Active to Passive Voice  
• Substitution
• Direct and Indirect Objects
• Subject and Object Complements
• Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
• Used to (repeated past actions)

Nouns and Pronouns 

• Pronoun Antecedent Agreement
• Sentence Nominalisation Practice
• Relative Pronouns
• Gerund or Present Participle
• Common vs Proper Nouns
• Demonstrative Adjectives (this, that, these, those)
• Quantifiers
• Types of Adjective 1
• Types of Adjective 2
• Possessive Adjectives
• Indefinite Adjectives
• Predicate Adjectives

Direct & Indirect Speech 

• Converting Direct to Indirect Speech  

Confusing Words 

• Affect vs Effect
• Be/Get Used To
• Hanged vs Hung
• Either or Neither

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English Grammar – A Complete Guide, from Basic to Advanced

Welcome to our English grammar page! Here you can find links to our most popular grammar pages, and links to essential grammar (and grammar exercises) by level.

Basic English Grammar

Start here if you’re a beginner, or if you need to refresh your knowledge of English. These pages give you the basic grammar rules, with explanations and exercises.

Learn how to use the verb “to be” and make sure you can use it in positive, negative and question forms. Go to Verb “to be”: grammar and exercises . Then move on to Pronouns and possessives so you can start building sentences. The Present simple tense shows you how to talk about facts and your everyday life. Learn how to form positive, negative and question forms.

Now move on to nouns. The first page to look at is English nouns . On this page you’ll learn about singular, plural, countable and uncountable nouns – plus some important spelling rules. Learn how to use a, an, the (or no article) on the page Indefinite and definite articles . The page There is, there are; some and any shows you how to talk about things you can see and things which can exist. On this page you also learn how to use “some” and “any”. Finally, go to Demonstratives and Determiners to learn about using “this”, “that”, “much”, “many”, “few”, etc.

Now you’re ready to improve your speaking and communiction! Go to Can for permission and requests so you know how to ask people for things. Learn to compare things with Basic comparatives . Move on to The Past Simple tense where you learn how to form the positive, negative and question forms, the spelling and pronunciation – as well as common irregular past forms. This page helps you to talk about events in the past! You can also look at Basic time reference words to learn how to use words like in, ago, and on. Finally, go to How to use “will” to learn how to talk about the future.

Elementary English Grammar

This section completes the essential English grammar you need to speak in most, everyday situations. It takes you up to a high elementary level, equivalent to A2 level.

Start with Giving instructions to learn how to use the imperative form in English. Then go to Have, have got, ‘s to make sure you can talk about possession, using the verbs have and have got, and the ‘s form. You’ll learn how to make sentences in the positive, negative and question forms, and how to talk about possession in the past. Take a look at Question words where you learn the most important question words in English – and how to use them. (Make sure you pay attention to the word order of questions, which is where many people make mistakes.) Then build on your knowledge of comparatives and go to Superlatives .

At this stage, you’ll also increase your knowledge of modal auxiliaries and new tenses. Start with the page Ability (can / could, etc) where you learn how to talk about ability using can and could (in the present and the past) and the correct pronunciation. Then move on to Modals of obligation where you learn how to use must, have to, need to, ought to and should. You don’t need to learn all of these, but must and have to are essential. Remember to check how to use the negatives of these modals.

Go to Present Continuous to learn when to use the Present Continuous tense, and how to form the positive, negative and question forms. After, go on to Future intentions to learn different ways to talk about the future. There’s more information about how to talk about future predictions on the page Will, might, going to . Then go to The Present Perfect to learn when and how to use it – and how it’s different from the Past Simple. This is an area that many people find difficult. Finally, check out the Irregular past participles page. You need to know these to form the Present Perfect tense.

Pre-intermediate English Grammar

At this level, you need to really consolidate your knowledge of English grammar, by revising what you already know. There are also some new areas of grammar to learn. There is a lot to do at this level, but when you have studied these areas of grammar, there isn’t much else to study! When you finish this level, you’ll be at a B1 (or PET) level.

Review how to make comparisons and learn some new qualifying expressions like “much”, “a little”, “far” to make what you say sound more precise. Go to the page How to make comparisons in English .

Review your knowledge of the English articles a, an and the on the page English Articles . Then go to Some and Any to learn how to use some, any and their compound forms (somewhere, anywhere, etc.) Also check out few, little, lots of (and their comparative forms) on the page Quantifiers: few, little, lots of . Review the imperative form on the page Using the Imperative Form in English and find out other ways to give warnings and advice – and how to make polite requests in writing and speaking situations.

Now check that you have a good understanding of the major tenses in English. First, go to Present tenses in English to make sure you know the difference between the Present Simple and the Present Continuous. Next, go to Past tenses in English for the differences between the Past Simple and the Past Continuous. The page Present perfect tenses made easy gives you information on the Present Perfect Simple and the Present Perfect Continuous. Finally, if you only ever use “will” or “going to” to talk about the future, you should check out Using future forms . This page shows you ways to talk about the future (although the two final ways are more suitable for an intermediate level of grammar.) If you’re never sure when to use the ‘going to’ future or the Present Continuous, this page has a very useful ‘hack’!

What’s the difference between “look like”, “be like”, “like” and “as”? Make sure you can use all these accurately on this page: Like and As . Go to Modal auxiliary verbs in English to learn about the grammar and use of this essential area of English. Then, you can start to learn conditional forms (also known as “if sentences”). At pre-intermediate level you should aim to study and use the Zero, First and Second conditional. (You’ll need to learn the third conditional at intermediate level, as well.) Go to Conditional sentences for this.

Most students have problems with English prepositions, and we have an entire section for you! Start with the page Prepositions list which gives you a complete list of English prepositions with their main uses and examples. Then learn which prepositions to use with common adjectives on the page Prepositions and adjectives . Go to Prepositions of time to learn prepositions of time (for, ago, etc) as well as prepositions to talk about location (place) and transport. Learn which prepositions to use with verbs on the page Learn English Prepositions and Verbs . Then, learn how to talk about where things are in relation to each other, and how to give directions with common prepositions on the page Prepositions of location and direction . Other useful pages are Prepositions with ‘in’ , and Prepositions with ‘on’ .

Another difficult area of English grammar is how to make questions. The page English Questions shows you the grammar rules for yes/no, “wh” questions – and also indirect questions.

There are two, final areas of grammar which are often introduced at the end of the pre-intermediate level. Go to the Reported Speech in English page to learn how tenses change; plus how to report questions and modals. The other more complicated area of grammar to start studying at this level is passives. The page How to use the passive voice in English shows you when – and how – to form a passive sentence. If you get confused about when to use been or being , there’s an explanation here.

Intermediate English Grammar

This level takes you up to a B2 level (or FCE).

Learn how to use adjectives and adverbs correctly – especially adverbs with double meanings. Review the word order of adjectives, too. Go to English Adjectives and Adverbs for this. If you’re interested in the vocabulary, grammar, spelling and punctuation differences between British and American English, go to the page British or American English?

At this level you need to know when to use gerunds and when to use infinitives. Check out the two pages How to use gerunds and English grammar rules for using the infinitive . This page also shows you the different types of infinitives and which verbs are followed by them.

Learn the verb patterns (including passive form) of make and let – and other verbs which follow the infinitive without “to” on the page Make and let . What’s the difference between “used to” and “be used to doing”? Check out the page How to use “used to” in English , also to learn when to use “used to” and when to use “would”. Then, learn how to use ‘ Used to + ing ‘ – make sure you don’t confuse it with ‘used to’!

You should also master causative verbs in English – verb forms like “get something done”. Then, make sure you know how to use reflexive pronouns in English. This is another way you can use “get” – especially in spoken English.

At this level, you also need to learn the difference between defining and non-defining relative clauses, and how to use relative pronouns correctly. Go to the page Relative Clauses for this. Then try the page English Question Tags . This is a common part of British English speech, but quite hard to get right!

The only tense left to learn is the Past Perfect. Go to Using “had done” in English for an explanation on where – and how – to use it. By the way, if you’re still having difficulty choosing between your tenses, check out the page How to choose your English tense s which gives you some simple rules on “aspect” to help you decide which tense to use.

An area of grammar that is often tested at the FCE (B2) level is how to use “wish”. The page Using Wish explains how to use wish for present and past situations, and which modal verbs to use.

Finally, two pages that can help you with writing narrative and longer texts is Time expressions in English (with some expressions you might not know) and Linking words (one of our most popular pages!) for ways to connect your sentences and ideas.

Intermediate to Advanced

You’ll be pleased to hear that there isn’t much more grammar to learn! What you need to do is keep reviewing problem areas – and reflect on the mistakes you make.

One area of grammar to look at is how we use Subjunctive forms in English. Check out the page Using the subjunctive form in English for explanations.

If you’re confused about why native English speakers make grammar mistakes, go to Non-standard English grammar . There are four main areas of difference between standard and ‘incorrect’ grammar,

Finally, most of the pages above have quizzes to test your knowledge. Also try these two pages:

English grammar exercises English tenses exercises

5 most popular pages in the grammar section

Linking Words There, Some, Any Will, Might, Going to Imperative Form Comparisons in English

The 10 Steps For Advanced English

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English Grammar Exercises

Click on a title to take a multiple-choise exercise online, or use the search form at the top to find a specific topic.

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Conjugation

Prepositions.

• Question Words Complete English questions with the appropriate interrogative pronouns. 1 ? start »

Sentence construction

Grammar Exercises

Perfect english grammar.

• Irregular Past Simple, Part 1
• Irregular Past Simple, Part 2
• Irregular Past Participle, Part 1
• Irregular Past Participle, Part 2
• Present Simple Positive with 'be'
• Present Simple Negative with 'be'
• Present Simple Yes / No Questions with 'be'
• Present Simple 'Wh' Questions with 'be'
• Present Simple Mixed Exercise 1 with 'be'
• Present Simple Mixed Exercise 2 with 'be'
• Present Simple Positive 1
• Present Simple Positive 2
• Present Simple Negative 1
• Present Simple Negative 2
• Present Simple Yes / No Questions
• Present Simple 'Wh' Questions
• Present Simple Mixed Forms 1
• Present Simple Mixed Forms 2
• Present Simple Mixed Forms 3
• Present Simple Mixed Forms Be and Other Verbs
• Present Simple Spelling Changes
• Present Continuous Positive and Negative 1
• Present Continuous Positive and Negative 2
• Present Continuous 'Wh' and 'Yes / No' Questions 1
• Present Continuous 'Wh' and 'Yes / No' Questions 2
• Present Continuous Mixed Exercise 1
• Present Continuous Mixed Exercise 2
• Present Continuous Mixed Exercise 3
• Choose the Present Simple or Present Continuous Exercise 1
• Choose the Present Simple or Present Continuous Exercise 2
• Choose the Present Simple or Present Continuous Exercise 3
• Present Perfect Positive
• Present Perfect Negative
• Present Perfect Questions
• Present Perfect All Forms Mixed Exercise 1
• Present Perfect All Forms Mixed Exercise 2
• Choose the Past Simple or Present Perfect Exercise 1
• Choose the Past Simple or Present Perfect Exercise 2
• Choose the Past Simple or Present Perfect Exercise 3
• Choose the Past Simple or Present Perfect Exercise 4
• Present Perfect Continuous Positive and Negative
• Present Perfect Continuous Questions
• Choose the Present Perfect Simple or Continuous 1
• Choose the Present Perfect Simple or Continuous 2
• Choose the Present Perfect Simple or Continuous 3
• Past Simple Positive and Negative with 'be'
• Past Simple Questions with 'be'
• Past Simple All Forms with 'be' Mixed Exercise
• Past Simple Positive Irregular Verbs (exercise 1)
• Past Simple Positive Irregular Verbs (exercise 2)
• Past Simple Negative
• Past Simple 'Yes / No' Questions
• Past Simple 'Wh' Questions
• Past Simple All Forms Mixed Exercise 1
• Past Simple All Forms Mixed Exercise 2
• Past Simple All Forms Mixed Exercise 3
• Past Simple All Forms Mixed Exercise 4
• Past Continuous Positive and Negative
• Past Continuous Questions
• Past Continuous Mixed Exercise 1
• Past Continuous Mixed Exercise 2
• Past Simple or Past Continuous Exercise 1
• Past Simple or Past Continuous Exercise 2
• Past Perfect Simple Positive and Negative
• Past Perfect Simple Questions
• Choose the Past Perfect or the Past Simple
• Past Perfect Continuous Positive
• Past Perfect Continuous Negative
• Past Perfect Continuous Questions
• Past Perfect Simple or Past Perfect Continuous
• Past Perfect Continuous or Past Simple Exercise 1
• Future Simple Positive
• Future Simple Negative
• Future Simple Questions
• Future Simple or Present Simple Exercise 1
• Future Continuous Positive
• Future Continuous Negative
• Future Continuous Questions
• Future Perfect Positive
• Future Perfect Negative
• Future Perfect Questions
• Mixed Future Perfect Exercise
• Future Perfect Continuous Positive
• Future Perfect Continuous Negative
• Future Perfect Continuous Questions
• Mixed Future Perfect Continuous Exercise
• Mixed Future Forms Exercise
• Make the first conditional
• Make the second conditional
• Make the third conditional
• Make the zero conditional
• Make the first, second and third conditionals
• Write your own endings to conditional sentences (PDF)
• Mixed Tense Reported Statements
• Present Simple Reported Statements
• Present Continuous Reported Statements
• Past Simple Reported Statements
• Present Perfect Reported Statements
• Future Simple Reported Statements
• Reported Yes/No Questions
• Reported Wh Questions
• Mixed Reported Questions (PDF)
• Reported Requests and Orders
• Reported Speech Mixed Exercise 1
• Reported Speech Mixed Exercise 2
• 'Say' and 'Tell'
• Passive with the Present Simple
• Passive with the Past Simple
• Passive with the Present Perfect
• Passive with the Future Simple
• Passive with mixed tenses
• Passive with verbs with two objects
• Passive in subordinate clauses
• Defining Relative Clauses 1
• Defining Relative Clauses 2
• Defining Relative Clauses 3
• Defining Relative Clauses 4
• Modal Verbs of Ability 1
• Modal Verbs of Obligation 1
• Modal verbs of Probability 1
• Modal verbs of Probability 2
• Causatives Exercise 1 (Have / Get Something Done)
• Causatives Exercise 2 (Have Someone Do Something / Get Someone to Do Something)
• Ergative and Unaccusative Verbs
• Embedded Questions in Statements
• Indirect Questions 1
• Indirect Questions 2
• Indirect Questions 3
• Time Prepositions 1
• Time Prepositions 2
• Place Prepositions 1
• Place Prepositions 2
• Verbs + Prepositions 1
• Verbs + Prepositions 2
• Adjectives + Prepositions 1
• Participle Adjectives (ED and ING Adjectives) 1
• Participle Adjectives (ED and ING Adjectives) 2
• Adverbs or Adjectives 1
• Comparative Adjectives 1
• Gerunds and Infinitives Exercise 1
• Gerunds and Infinitives Exercise 2
• Gerunds and Infinitives Exercise 3
• Gerunds and Infinitives Exercise 4
• Let and Make Exercise 1
• Make or Do Exercise 1
• Make or Do Exercise 2
• Make or Do Exercise 3
• Make or Do Exercise 4
• Used To Exercise 1
• Used To Exercise 2 ('used to' or 'would')
• Used To Exercise 3 (be used to verb+ing)
• Phrasal Verbs Exercise 1
• Phrasal Verbs Exercise 2
• Phrasal Verbs Exercise 3
• A Little / A Few Exercise 1
• Bed / Home / Work / Town Exercise 1
• Superlatives with The and No Article Exercise 1
• Some and Any Exercise 1
• Some and Any Exercise 2
• Articles with Geographical Names Exercise 1
• Articles with Geographical Names Exercise 2
• As and Like Exercise 1
• Linking Words of Contrast (However / Despite / Although)
• Linking Words of Reason (Because / Since / As / Due to / Owing to)

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Articles & Advice > Majors and Academics > Blog

English Grammar Cheat Sheet for Students

Struggling with grammar as you write your English essays, term papers, and other school assignments? Here's a cheat sheet with everything students need to know!

by Emily Rogan CollegeXpress Student Writer

Last Updated: Mar 20, 2024

Originally Posted: Jan 17, 2017

I don’t care if you’ve been at the top of your English class since sixth grade: every student, regardless of age or discipline, knows the struggle of trying to write a paper. We’ve all been there. And a big part of that struggle is grammar, style, and usage. Especially when it comes to all-important term papers or that gen ed English class you loathe, writing papers with correct style and grammar is important. Occasionally, you’ll come along a professor who doesn’t care—or doesn’t even use correct grammar themselves—but most of the time, students need to be on top of grammar, punctuation, style, citations, and all the other little things that seem impossible to keep track of.

If you struggle with common grammar and usage, or if your papers always come back to you with lots of red marks and corrections, you should do yourself a favor and learn these rules now . And not just because it’ll help you do better on your English papers; out in the real world, these mistakes can really cost you. (Do you think your boss will be happy if you send an email to an important person with misspellings and other errors? No. No, they will not be happy.)

The most common grammar mistakes

• A lot: It’s two words. (But there are so many, countless, tons, myriad, plenty, numerous, innumerable, more descriptive words you could use instead of “a lot”!).
• Commas: In short, use them wisely. I’ve read so many papers of classmates who put, too, many, commas, in, to, their, writing. A super basic rule of thumb might be “when in doubt, leave it out.” But! There are tons of comma rules out there that are worth learning: Don’t use a comma between nouns and verbs. Do use a comma to set off long-form dates (July 4, 2017 is correct). But don’t use a comma for month and year (July 2017 is correct). And that’s just the tip of the iceberg. It’s okay if you don’t learn all the comma rules perfectly, but you should check out this easy guide to using commas whenever you’re unsure.
• Its/it’s: “Its” means possession/ownership. “It’s” is a contraction of “it is.” For example, “The campus has its own special vibe. It’s a place for doers and dreamers to come together.” (By the way, doesn’t that sound like every college brochure ever?!)
• Semicolons: I used to swear these were the greatest things ever—until I discovered the many ways you can mess up grammatically using them. Semicolons are often poetically described as the punctuation equivalent of “I could’ve stopped here, but I decided not to.” They basically work in two ways: First, they link related sentences and let you skip using conjunctions like “and” or “but.” So you could say, “We’re going to the beach; it’s the perfect day for it.” Or you could say, “We’re going to the beach, and it’s the perfect day for it.” However, if you’re unsure about how to use the semicolon, it’s often safer to just start a new sentence. Second, semicolons separate items within a series within  another series. For example, you would write, “The students’ spring break choices were Cancun, Mexico; Washington, DC; and Fort Lauderdale, Florida.” But simple sentences don’t need a semicolon; for example, “He brought the ice cream, I brought the sprinkles, and Jenny brought the chocolate sauce.”
• Subject-verb agreement: I know this one sounds very elementary school-ish, but it’s a common grammar mistake even among college students. And subject-verb agreement can get especially tricky if you have a crazy-long sentence with lots of clauses. In any case, double-check to make sure your verb truly matches whatever it’s actually talking about, not just the word it comes right after .
• There/they’re/their: “There” is a place. “They’re” is the contraction of “they are.” And “their” means possession/ownership. For example, “They’re riding their bikes over there."
• Your/you’re:  “Your” means possession/ownership; “you’re” is a contraction of “you are.” For example, “You’re going to use up all of your meal credits if you go to the dining hall five times a day.”

Related: Steering Clear of College Application Essay Mistakes

More simple style and usage tips to keep in mind for your papers

• Pay attention to what style you’re supposed to use for citations in your papers. MLA , APA , and Turabian are all common, and the style will often vary with the subject area.
• Make sure you cite enough and appropriately. This isn’t just about giving credit where it’s due; it’s about protecting yourself from getting into trouble with plagiarism . Plus, it serves as a guide for readers to find more information should they want to.
• Remember that titles of full-length books, magazines, and plays are italicized . However, titles of songs, essays, and short stories included in larger works are put in “quotation marks.”
• Proofread, proofread, proofread! Very often, we can skip over the same grammar or usage mistake several times in our own writing. I just reread something of mine this week that I wrote almost two years ago—something I’ve read through countless times since—and found a mistake that I hadn’t caught in all those times. You should also give yourself some time away from whatever you’re writing and come back to it for editing. When you’re writing an essay, try to finish a day or two before the deadline. Then leave it alone for at least an hour (ideally a whole day) and read back through it after that breather so you’ll have new eyes. Hopefully you’ll catch anything you didn’t see before.

Related: College Application Proofreading Tips from an Editor–in–Chief  

Other places and people that can help with your writing

• First things first: if you are truly struggling, please do not turn to a professional essay writing service . It won't help strengthen your writing and grammar skills at all, plus you could get in major trouble.
• The Purdue OWL Writing Lab is awesome for general writing and grammar help for students, whether you’re in college or high school (or older!).
• Take advantage of your school’s tutoring and/or writing centers . It should be free for you to go, but also remember if you’re in college, you’re essentially paying for that stuff anyway with your tuition and fees—so you might as well get your money’s worth and visit.
• Have someone else read your writing. A friend, sibling, parent, mentor—any set of fresh eyes can be helpful. Even if they’re not familiar with the subject material, they can at least look at it for grammar issues and overall tone.
• The best, quickest, and easiest way to learn how to write better? Read good writing! There’s so much amazing writing online (look for respected websites) and a bajillion books out there to read. The more you read, the better your writing will be. Also, reading is great. Fact.

If you use this grammar cheat sheet, you’ll impress everyone who reads your school essays and other writing from now on! This list is by no means comprehensive, but it’s a good place to start for the most common paper-writing and grammar errors students face. 

Does this grammar cheat sheet have what you’re looking for? What grammar, style, and usage things do you struggle with in your writing? Or if this stuff comes easy to you (lucky!), are there any tips for students we should add? Follow us on social media and  tag us @CollegeXpress!

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About Emily Rogan

Emily Rogan is a student at Morehead State University , where she's studying Communications and Theater. When she's not in school, she is an actor, musician, singer, and writer.

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Grammar: Sentence Structure and Types of Sentences

Definitions and examples of basic sentence elements.

The Mastering the Mechanics webinar series also describes required sentence elements and varying sentence types. Please see these archived webinars for more information.

Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular font = prepositional phrase

Independent clause : An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a subject and a verb and is a complete idea.

• I like spaghetti .
• He reads many books .

Dependent clause : A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to an independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a subordinate clause.

• Although I like spaghetti,…
• Because he reads many books,…

Subject : A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the subject in a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”

• I like spaghetti.
• He reads many books.

Verb : Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. Determine the verb in a sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”

• The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a linking verb. It links the subject, in this case "the movie," to the complement or the predicate of the sentence, in this case, "good.")

Object : A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the object in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For whom?”

Prepositional Phrase : A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind, until, after, of, during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase answers one of many questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what way?”

• I like spaghetti for dinner .
• He reads many books in the library .

English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

• H e obtained his degree.
• He obtained his degree .
• Smith he obtained his degree.
• He obtained his degree.
• He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause.

Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular font =prepositional phrase

Here are a few examples:

• She wrote .
• She completed her literature review .
• He organized his sources by theme .
• They studied APA rules for many hours .

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses.  These two independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon .

Key: independent clause = yellow, bold ; comma  or semicolon = pink, regular font ; coordinating conjunction = green, underlined

• She completed her literature review , and she created her reference list .
• He organized his sources by theme ; then, he updated his reference list .
• They studied APA rules for many hours , but they realized there was still much to learn .

Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety .

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two clauses.

Key: independent clause = yellow, bold ; comma = pink, regular font ; dependent clause = blue, italics

• Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
• Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an independent clause.
• Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety .

Compound-Complex Sentences

Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Key: independent clause = yellow, bold ; comma  or semicolon = pink, regular font ; coordinating conjunction = green, underlined ; dependent clause = blue, italics

• She completed her literature review , but she still needs to work on her methods section even though she finished her methods course last semester .
• Although he organized his sources by theme , he decided to arrange them chronologically , and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization . 
• T hey studied APA rules for many hours , and they decided that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and objective .
• Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety .
• Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that the reader is easily able to follow the intended meaning.

Sentence Structure Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Structuring Sentences: Types of Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Simple Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Compound Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Complex Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Combining Sentences (video transcript)
• Common Error: Unclear Subjects (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Punctuation as Symbols (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Commas (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Periods (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Semicolons (video transcript)

Related Resources

Knowledge Check: Sentence Structure and Types of Sentences

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

• Previous Page: Main Parts of Speech
• Next Page: Run-On Sentences and Sentence Fragments
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A brief introduction to grammar

Unit 1: parts of speech: the noun, unit 2: parts of speech: the verb, unit 3: parts of speech: the pronoun, unit 4: parts of speech: the modifier, unit 5: parts of speech: the preposition and the conjunction, unit 6: punctuation: the comma and the apostrophe, unit 7: punctuation: the colon, semicolon, and more, unit 8: syntax: sentences and clauses, unit 9: syntax: conventions of standard english, unit 10: usage and style.

Module 4: Writing in College

Writing assignments, learning objectives.

• Describe common types and expectations of writing tasks given in a college class

Figure 1 . All college classes require some form of writing. Investing some time in refining your writing skills so that you are a more confident, skilled, and efficient writer will pay dividends in the long run.

What to Do With Writing Assignments

Writing assignments can be as varied as the instructors who assign them. Some assignments are explicit about what exactly you’ll need to do, in what order, and how it will be graded. Others are more open-ended, leaving you to determine the best path toward completing the project. Most fall somewhere in the middle, containing details about some aspects but leaving other assumptions unstated. It’s important to remember that your first resource for getting clarification about an assignment is your instructor—they will be very willing to talk out ideas with you, to be sure you’re prepared at each step to do well with the writing.

Writing in college is usually a response to class materials—an assigned reading, a discussion in class, an experiment in a lab. Generally speaking, these writing tasks can be divided into three broad categories: summary assignments, defined-topic assignments, and undefined-topic assignments.

Link to Learning

Empire State College offers an  Assignment Calculator  to help you plan ahead for your writing assignment. Just plug in the date you plan to get started and the date it is due, and the calculator will help break it down into manageable chunks.

Summary Assignments

Being asked to summarize a source is a common task in many types of writing. It can also seem like a straightforward task: simply restate, in shorter form, what the source says. A lot of advanced skills are hidden in this seemingly simple assignment, however.

An effective summary does the following:

• reflects your accurate understanding of a source’s thesis or purpose
• differentiates between major and minor ideas in a source
• demonstrates your ability to identify key phrases to quote
• shows your ability to effectively paraphrase most of the source’s ideas
• captures the tone, style, and distinguishing features of a source
• does not reflect your personal opinion about the source

That last point is often the most challenging: we are opinionated creatures, by nature, and it can be very difficult to keep our opinions from creeping into a summary. A summary is meant to be completely neutral.

In college-level writing, assignments that are only summary are rare. That said, many types of writing tasks contain at least some element of summary, from a biology report that explains what happened during a chemical process, to an analysis essay that requires you to explain what several prominent positions about gun control are, as a component of comparing them against one another.

Writing Effective Summaries

Start with a clear identification of the work.

This automatically lets your readers know your intentions and that you’re covering the work of another author.

• In the featured article “Five Kinds of Learning,” the author, Holland Oates, justifies his opinion on the hot topic of learning styles — and adds a few himself.

Summarize the Piece as a Whole

Omit nothing important and strive for overall coherence through appropriate transitions. Write using “summarizing language.” Your reader needs to be reminded that this is not your own work. Use phrases like the article claims, the author suggests, etc.

• Present the material in a neutral fashion. Your opinions, ideas, and interpretations should be left in your brain — don’t put them into your summary. Be conscious of choosing your words. Only include what was in the original work.
• Be concise. This is a summary — it should be much shorter than the original piece. If you’re working on an article, give yourself a target length of 1/4 the original article.

Conclude with a Final Statement

This is not a statement of your own point of view, however; it should reflect the significance of the book or article from the author’s standpoint.

• Without rewriting the article, summarize what the author wanted to get across. Be careful not to evaluate in the conclusion or insert any of your own assumptions or opinions.

Understanding the Assignment and Getting Started

Figure 2 . Many writing assignments will have a specific prompt that sends you first to your textbook, and then to outside resources to gather information.

Often, the handout or other written text explaining the assignment—what professors call the assignment prompt —will explain the purpose of the assignment and the required parameters (length, number and type of sources, referencing style, etc.).

Also, don’t forget to check the rubric, if there is one, to understand how your writing will be assessed. After analyzing the prompt and the rubric, you should have a better sense of what kind of writing you are expected to produce.

Sometimes, though—especially when you are new to a field—you will encounter the baffling situation in which you comprehend every single sentence in the prompt but still have absolutely no idea how to approach the assignment! In a situation like that, consider the following tips:

• Focus on the verbs . Look for verbs like compare, explain, justify, reflect , or the all-purpose analyze . You’re not just producing a paper as an artifact; you’re conveying, in written communication, some intellectual work you have done. So the question is, what kind of thinking are you supposed to do to deepen your learning?
• Put the assignment in context . Many professors think in terms of assignment sequences. For example, a social science professor may ask you to write about a controversial issue three times: first, arguing for one side of the debate; second, arguing for another; and finally, from a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective, incorporating text produced in the first two assignments. A sequence like that is designed to help you think through a complex issue. If the assignment isn’t part of a sequence, think about where it falls in the span of the course (early, midterm, or toward the end), and how it relates to readings and other assignments. For example, if you see that a paper comes at the end of a three-week unit on the role of the Internet in organizational behavior, then your professor likely wants you to synthesize that material.
• Try a free-write . A free-write is when you just write, without stopping, for a set period of time. That doesn’t sound very “free”; it actually sounds kind of coerced, right? The “free” part is what you write—it can be whatever comes to mind.  Professional writers use free-writing to get started on a challenging (or distasteful) writing task or to overcome writer’s block or a powerful urge to procrastinate. The idea is that if you just make yourself write, you can’t help but produce some kind of useful nugget. Thus, even if the first eight sentences of your free write are all variations on “I don’t understand this” or “I’d really rather be doing something else,” eventually you’ll write something like “I guess the main point of this is…,” and—booyah!—you’re off and running.
• Ask for clarification . Even the most carefully crafted assignments may need some verbal clarification, especially if you’re new to a course or field. Professors generally love questions, so don’t be afraid to ask. Try to convey to your instructor that you want to learn and you’re ready to work, and not just looking for advice on how to get an A.

Defined-Topic Assignments

Many writing tasks will ask you to address a particular topic or a narrow set of topic options. Defined-topic writing assignments are used primarily to identify your familiarity with the subject matter. (Discuss the use of dialect in  Their Eyes Were Watching God , for example.)

Remember, even when you’re asked to “show how” or “illustrate,” you’re still being asked to make an argument. You must shape and focus your discussion or analysis so that it supports a claim that you discovered and formulated and that all of your discussion and explanation develops and supports. 

Undefined-Topic Assignments

Another writing assignment you’ll potentially encounter is one in which the topic may be only broadly identified (“water conservation” in an ecology course, for instance, or “the Dust Bowl” in a U.S. History course), or even completely open (“compose an argumentative research essay on a subject of your choice”).

Figure 3 . For open-ended assignments, it’s best to pick something that interests you personally.

Where defined-topic essays demonstrate your knowledge of the content , undefined-topic assignments are used to demonstrate your skills— your ability to perform academic research, to synthesize ideas, and to apply the various stages of the writing process.

The first hurdle with this type of task is to find a focus that interests you. Don’t just pick something you feel will be “easy to write about” or that you think you already know a lot about —those almost always turn out to be false assumptions. Instead, you’ll get the most value out of, and find it easier to work on, a topic that intrigues you personally or a topic about which you have a genuine curiosity.

The same getting-started ideas described for defined-topic assignments will help with these kinds of projects, too. You can also try talking with your instructor or a writing tutor (at your college’s writing center) to help brainstorm ideas and make sure you’re on track.

Getting Started in the Writing Process

Writing is not a linear process, so writing your essay, researching, rewriting, and adjusting are all part of the process. Below are some tips to keep in mind as you approach and manage your assignment.

Figure 4 . Writing is a recursive process that begins with examining the topic and prewriting.

Write down topic ideas. If you have been assigned a particular topic or focus, it still might be possible to narrow it down or personalize it to your own interests. 

If you have been given an open-ended essay assignment,  the topic should be something that allows you to enjoy working with the writing process. Select a topic that you’ll want to think about, read about, and write about for several weeks, without getting bored. 

Figure 5 . Just getting started is sometimes the most difficult part of writing. Freewriting and planning to write multiple drafts can help you dive in.

If you’re writing about a subject you’re not an expert on and want to make sure you are presenting the topic or information realistically, look up the information or seek out an expert to ask questions.

• Note: Be cautious about information you retrieve online, especially if you are writing a research paper or an article that relies on factual information. A quick Google search may turn up unreliable, misleading sources. Be sure you consider the credibility of the sources you consult (we’ll talk more about that later in the course). And keep in mind that published books and works found in scholarly journals have to undergo a thorough vetting process before they reach publication and are therefore safer to use as sources.
• Check out a library. Yes, believe it or not, there is still information to be found in a library that hasn’t made its way to the Web. For an even greater breadth of resources, try a college or university library. Even better, research librarians can often be consulted in person, by phone, or even by email. And they love helping students. Don’t be afraid to reach out with questions!

Write a Rough Draft

It doesn’t matter how many spelling errors or weak adjectives you have in it. Your draft can be very rough! Jot down those random uncategorized thoughts. Write down anything you think of that you want included in your writing and worry about organizing and polishing everything later.

If You’re Having Trouble, Try F reewriting

Set a timer and write continuously until that time is up. Don’t worry about what you write, just keeping moving your pencil on the page or typing something (anything!) into the computer.

• Outcome: Writing in College. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence. Authored by : Amy Guptill. Provided by : SUNY Open Textbooks. Located at : http://textbooks.opensuny.org/writing-in-college-from-competence-to-excellence/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
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• Image of woman reading. Authored by : Aaron Osborne. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/dPLmVV . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Image of sketches of magnifying glass. Authored by : Matt Cornock. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/eBSLmg . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
• How to Write a Summary. Authored by : WikiHow. Located at : http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Summary . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• How to Write. Provided by : WikiHow. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
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Five Best Grammar Websites for Your College Students

Guest Contributors: Lawrence Barkley and Christine Sandoval, authors of  Grammar and Usage, Naturally, 1st Edition

No matter how well written a grammar textbook, no matter how well explained or illustrated a grammatical concept, some students will still need further explanation and practice to fully grasp the material.

Grammar websites can supplement a text and lecture by providing additional model sentences and exercises as well as provide a different way of perceiving the grammatical concept.

Below we review six sites, evaluating their relevance and helpfulness to the grammar classroom.

Daily Grammar

This site is for ESL students and anyone who needs to refresh English grammar skills. The Archive lays out all 440 lessons and 88 quizzes in two forms: by sequential lesson number and by subject. In the first group, the lessons are divided into three categories: Parts of Speech, Parts of the Sentence, and Mechanics. Lessons begin with an explanation, followed by an exercise. In the subject area, concepts are presented alphabetically, then further subcategorized.

In a smart classroom, instructors could easily open the Daily Grammar archive and have students do exercises for review. The site also includes a glossary of grammar terms that not only defines the grammatical concept but also provides a link to the applicable lessons.

Grammar Bytes

This is an easy-to-navigate, interactive grammar site covering a wide range of grammatical concepts and sentence structure issues (from pronoun case to run-ons to word choice) relevant to every college student from developmental to college-level. Many of the concepts include quizzes and each quiz offers explanations for the answers so your students get immediate feedback. Before each quiz, students will review the rules for the topic, as each topic is broken down into “Understand the Problem” and “Know the Solution.” Students can print their quizzes to show their work and “tip sheets” that can supplement what your textbook and lectures offer.

The Guide to Grammar and Writing  

The Guide offers a wealth of information and activities. Your students may choose from “Word and Sentence Level,” “Paragraph Level,” and “Essay and Research Level” tutorials and quizzes. Over 170 quizzes give immediate feedback, and the quizzes require students to both identify grammatical concepts as well as apply them while correcting incorrect sentences or while writing their own sentences. The site also includes 14 PowerPoint presentations covering various topics ranging from “Our Friend, the Semicolon” to “Avoiding Sentence Fragments” and “Paragraph Structure.” Other helpful features include definitions and an FAQ section.

Road to Grammar

The Road is primarily a site for ESL students and teachers, but with the variety of activities, the site would complement an English grammar classroom really well. Road to Grammar provides 364 short quizzes with answers and notes, extended practice activities, grammar games, and activities specifically for Business English learners.

Road to Grammar provides notes for instructors on how they might use the quizzes, extended practices, and games. The quizzes are available as downloadable PDFs. The “Teacher Resources” tab will help you find links to ESL Units, a text analysis tool, a glossary, video lessons, a quiz creator tool, as well as word lists.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Common Writing Assignments

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

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These OWL resources will help you understand and complete specific types of writing assignments, such as annotated bibliographies, book reports, and research papers. This section also includes resources on writing academic proposals for conference presentations, journal articles, and books.

Understanding Writing Assignments

This resource describes some steps you can take to better understand the requirements of your writing assignments. This resource works for either in-class, teacher-led discussion or for personal use.

Argument Papers

This resource outlines the generally accepted structure for introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions in an academic argument paper. Keep in mind that this resource contains guidelines and not strict rules about organization. Your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.

Research Papers

This handout provides detailed information about how to write research papers including discussing research papers as a genre, choosing topics, and finding sources.

Exploratory Papers

This resource will help you with exploratory/inquiry essay assignments.

Annotated Bibliographies

This handout provides information about annotated bibliographies in MLA, APA, and CMS.

Book Report

This resource discusses book reports and how to write them.

Definitions

This handout provides suggestions and examples for writing definitions.

Essays for Exams

While most OWL resources recommend a longer writing process (start early, revise often, conduct thorough research, etc.), sometimes you just have to write quickly in test situations. However, these exam essays can be no less important pieces of writing than research papers because they can influence final grades for courses, and/or they can mean the difference between getting into an academic program (GED, SAT, GRE). To that end, this resource will help you prepare and write essays for exams.

Book Review

This resource discusses book reviews and how to write them.

Academic Proposals

This resource will help undergraduate, graduate, and professional scholars write proposals for academic conferences, articles, and books.

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Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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